All Quiet On The Western Front :: essays research papers

Decline of Morality   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The novel All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque shows that war destroys more than just the physical level; the decline of morality has taken place through various circumstances in the novel such as: then incident where Paul Baumer is forced to kill a soldier in a shell hole, when Paul lies to his mother and the mother of his dead friend Kemmerich and when Paul and Kat must beat a recruit unconscious to stop him from leaving the trench; these incidents can be compared to events in the 1990’s such as: rise in the abortion rate, Columbine High School shootings, and the incident between President Clinton and Monica Lewinski.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Chapter 7 Paul is granted a leave from his duties for about a month and in this time he plans on going home and visiting his family. When he arrives his mother asks him questions about how he is and about the war. More specifically she asks, â€Å"Was it very bad out there, Paul?† He thinks to himself how that is a bad question and that nobody realizes how bad the soldiers actually have so he is forced to lie. He says â€Å"No, Mother, not so very. There are always a lot of us together so it isn’t so bad.† Here the author proves that the war forces some to lie to their parents whom they have always been honest with and this demonstrates the decline of family life that the war causes. Later in the chapter he goes to visit the mother of his dead friend, Kemmerich. While there he tells her that he died instantly and she doesn’t believe him, â€Å"You lie. I know better. I have felt his anguish-tell the truth, I want to know it, I must know it.†(159) He again lies to her, â€Å"No, I was beside him. He died at once† (159). But yet she tells him, â€Å"I know you want to comfort me, but don’t you see, you torment me far more than if you told me the truth? I cannot bear the uncertainty† (159). He sticks to his story telling her, â€Å"He died immediately. He felt absolutely nothing at all. His face was quite calm† (160). Again this incident shows that war has a major affect on family life, if he is able to lie to his mother about the war easily, that makes it easier for him to lie to Mrs. Kemmerich about her son. These incidents can be most closely related to the confrontation involving the President

Bridging the Gap Essay -- Education

Bridging the Gaps John W. Gardner said, â€Å"Much education today is monumentally ineffective. All too often we are giving young people cut flowers when we should be teaching them to grow their own plants.† Education today is very ineffective. It is in an in between phase of the ways of old and a time of complete reform. The main issue is that people often lose sight of why the education system should even be reformed. It shouldn’t be reformed because â€Å"that’s what everyone else is doing.† It needs to be reformed to bridge the gap for the students who have a different learning style. It should be reformed to expand knowledge for students. Education reform can have good and bad effects. Because the education system is very complex, educators are being faced with changes and they must decide what is best for students. Educators have been faced with so many changes over time. From a one room schoolhouse to three story buildings. Schools have gone from strictly religious to it being illegal for teachers to bring it up. Not even twenty years ago, many students such as farmers’ kids would drop out of school after eighth grade to work on the farm. School was enforced and college was not as highly encouraged. Now, most people go to college. Education has had many reforms. Some have happened over time and some just quickly took place, but all of them have had a huge effect on students. Through all of the changes of education, one has slowly started to take place all over the world. The education system was created with a three month break in the summer. Slowly, the idea of year round school has been planted in education. Students fear it, but should they? The idea of year round school is not what everyone thinks it is. Most year round sch... ...earning." Project Based Learning. Web. Mar. 2012. . Quillen, Ian. "Educational Technology Rides Stimulus Funding Wave." Education Week. 09 Feb 2011: 15. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 25 Mar 2012. Sadowski, Michael. "Time and Learning." Harvard Education Letter. March/April 1998: 4-6. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 25 Mar 2012. Solomon, Gwen. "Project-Based Learning: A Primer." TechLearning (2003). Web. Mar. 2012. . Sovern, Jeff. "Laptops in Class: How Distracting Are They?." Christian Science Monitor. 06 Jun 2011: n.p. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 25 Mar 2012. Thomas, Ph.D, John W. "A Review of Research on Project-Based Learning." The Journal of Learning Sciences (2000): 367-42. Web. Mar. 2012. .

Russian Bureaucracy Essay -- Russian Government, Politics

The growth of the Russian bureaucracy from the Imperial to Soviet era is overwhelming. According to Alekinskii, in 1897, 435,000 civilians worked for the public bureaucratic sector. This means for every 292 members of the populous there would be one public servant plied for representation (Alekinskii, 178). By 1897, the bureaucracy in Russia was no older than sixty years. Prior to the 1830s state bureaucrats did not truly exist; shortly thereafter, seniority dictated which workers would progress upwards in the public institutions in which he or she worked (John Le Dunne). This could be interpreted as the first sign of the development of bureaucracy in Imperial Russia. Russian bureaucracy, at least in the Soviet and Imperial sense, does not mimic the traditionally accepted Weberian notion of bureaucracy and bureaucratic development. Some scholars feel Russia could be portrayed as the true birthplace of a pure bureaucratic system. In other countries, such as the United States or Norwa y, the bureaucracy gained power slowly in an already stable political and social environment. This is not the case in Russia. According to Hollander, a major difference in the Imperial and Soviet bureaucracies from prescribed Western norms surrounds politicization (Hollander, 305). The bureaucracy developed through class oppression and political upheaval over centuries. It can be said that a truly stable political and social environment in Russia is only about twenty years old; in spite of this, the Russian bureaucracy existed and thrived for centuries prior to the social awakening. How did Russia often express itself during times of censorship and control? Literature. Despite being written during the times of Tsars and Imperialists, works like Nik... ...overeignty.† The American Journal of International Law. Vol. 43: No. 1 (January, 1949). 21-36. Hollander, Paul. â€Å"Observations on Bureaucracy, Totalitarianism, and the Comparative Study of Communism.† Slavic Review. Vol. 26: No. 2 (June, 1967). 302-307. Lincoln, W. Bruce. The Great Reforms: Autocracy, Bureaucracy, and the Politics of Change in Imperial Russia. (DeKalb: N. Illinois University Press, 1990). Pinter, Walter M., â€Å"The Social Characteristics of the Early 19th Century Russian Bureaucracy.† Slavic Review. Vol. 29: No. 3 (September, 1970). Pipes, Richard. Ryavec, Karl W. Russian Bureaucracy: Power and Pathology. (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2003). Ulam, Adam B. The Russian Political System. (New York: Random House Inc., 1975). Wade, Rex A. The Russian Revolution, 1917. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

How to Be a Good Muslim

Garrett Waidelich October 8, 2012 Islamic Civilization Dr. McGrath How to be a Good Muslim In the Quran and the Hadith of Bukhari there are many descriptions of what it takes to be a good Muslim. God gives very specific details to Muhammad about what Muslims need to do and what they can’t do if they want to get to paradise. The five pillars of Islam created a base for Muslims to follow in order to be a good Muslim. The five pillars are that there is no god but God, to offer prayer, to give charity, perform the hajj and to fast during Ramadan (HB 1: 7).The Muslims that follow the five pillars and follow Muhammad’s teachings will reach paradise. The first pillar is to accept that God is the only god and that he is the only one worthy of being worshiped (HB 1: 7, 25, 50, 63, 2: 594, Q 2: 176). This first pillar is very important in Islam because Islam is based around the idea of submitting to God and being God’s slave. God is the most powerful being that there is an d he created the Earth and all its inhabitants (Q 2: 163). God also hears and knows everything, including people’s thoughts and intentions (Q 2: 180).This pillar is so important because God is all powerful, righteous, and merciful. Disobeying this pillar is a terrible deed and Muhammad also said that the worst sin is to worship another god (Q 2: 190, HB 3: 821). The second pillar is to offer prayer perfectly five times a day. There are a lot of rules about how to pray and things that must be done for prayer to count as a good deed. Because God knows and hears all, a Muslim must be completely focused on God while they are praying and not be distracted by other things (HB 2: 307, 4: 504).Muslims are supposed to pray five times a day at specified times (HB 3: 115). Prayer is also better when it is done consistently instead of praying for a long time and then not praying again until the next week (Quran 23: 5, HB 1: 41). Muslims should not get drunk and especially should not pray while drunk (HB 1: 50). Cleanliness is also important when praying. It is good to clean your teeth before prayer and when women menstruate it is considered unclean and they should not pray (HB 2: 12, 1: 247, 1: 817, 3: 172, Quran 2: 222).Men are also not supposed to pray or be around women when the woman is menstruating (Quran 2: 222). Women were also told not to watch men pray because the sheets they wore were short and showed their private areas (HB 2: 306). Prayer is also considered better, 27 times better, when done in congregation than alone (HB 1: 618). Prayer also can reduce the bad deeds that a Muslim might commit, for example a man came to Muhammad and said he had kissed a woman unlawfully and Muhammad told him to pray and the prayer would remove the bad deed (HB 1: 504).Praying to please God and not to impress other people also will lead to all of your past sins to be forgiven (HB 1: 34). Charity is also a very important part of Islam. There are many different references to charity from Zakat, to the alms levy, to giving to the poor. It is considered a god deed to help the poor and it is required to give Zakat. Muhammad says that giving Zakat is one of the best deeds that a Muslim can do (HB 1: 7, 25, 50, 54, 502).Not only is paying Zakat a good deed but also giving to charity and helping the poor is a good deed (HB 1: 11, 27). There is a charity that can be given every day, called Sadaqa, and this charity consists of doing good deeds (4: 232). These good deeds count as the charity. Muhammad told a woman that giving the alms levy is especially important for women because a majority of the people in hell were women (HB 1: 301). Helping orphans, beggars, travelers, and anyone in need is considered a good deed (Quran 2: 215, 2: 177).Giving to help people in need has many benefits for Muslims. When a woman gives charity from her husband’s belongings without hurting his belongings, both the woman and her husband will be rewarded (HB 2: 518, 520, 5 21). While giving to charity is a good deed it is bad for someone to hoard their wealth and money for their personal benefit and can lead to punishment from God (HB 2: 513, 514, 515). If a person does keep all of his money instead of spending it in God’s cause, God will withhold his blessings from that person (HB 2: 513, 514, 515).Another form of charity is buying the freedom of a slave, or setting your own slave free. Freeing a slave can remove the worst of bad deeds including killing someone or breaking your oath (Quran 4: 92, 5: 88). It is good to pay for the rest of the freedom of a slave if you own a part of the slave and partially free him (HB 3: 672). Performing the Hajj at least one time during a Muslims life is another pillar of Islam. Hajj is the pilgrimage from Medina to Mecca that occurs every year in the last month of the Islamic calendar.Hajj is to be made during the specified months, and while on the hajj a man should not have sexual intercourse, should not swe ar, or get into disputes while on the pilgrimage (2: 197). If someone is ill or too weak to perform hajj, someone else can make the pilgrimage on their behalf, with the ill person receiving the reward (HB 2: 589). Muhammad also tells women that instead of participating in Jihad, a women’s Jihad is performing the hajj (HB 4: 43, 127). The final pillar is fasting. Fasting is best when it is done three days a month and during the whole month of Ramadan (HB 2: 274).When someone is ill or on a journey, they can fast the same number of days later when they return or when they are healthy again (Quran 2: 183). It is also possible to substitute feeding a poor person instead of fasting if a person is unable to fast, but fasting is the better of the two (Quran 2: 183). During fasting, you are allowed to eat and have sexual relations at night when the sun is down (HB 3: 139). Women that are menstruating when they fast do not get the rewards because they are considered unclean (HB 3: 172 ).The five pillars are the basis for Muslim actions that will get them into paradise, but there are also a few other things that make a Muslim good. Jihad is another very important thing for a Muslim to participate in and there are many benefits to Jihad. The Quran states that everyone has an obligation to take part in Jihad, but they should never be the aggressor (Quran 2: 216, 2: 190). Fighting for God’s cause is basically fighting to defend Islam and to make it superior to all other beliefs (Quran 1: 125, 22: 78). Jihad has many rewards for Muslims that participate in it.Some of these rewards are booty that is taken if you survive and for the martyr a place in heaven right beneath God (HB 4: 48). If a Muslim did not want to fight, Muhammad said that to equal the good deeds of Jihad that person would have to fast and pray during the entire time the soldiers were on Jihad (HB 4: 44). This would be impossible and enforces the idea that Muslims that participate in Jihad are co nsidered better than those that don’t, unless someone is injured and unable to (HB 4: 84). Women were not supposed to participate in Jihad but instead their Jihad was the hajj (HB 4: 127).Although women’s Jihad was hajj there are numerous stories of Aisha and other women helping the wounded and watering the soldiers during battles (HB 4: 130, 131, 132, 133, 134). Muslims are given very specific directions and helpful tips to be good Muslims. If Muslims accept and admit that God is the only God, pray, offer charity, make the pilgrimage, fast, and do other good deeds they will be considered good Muslims and will get into paradise on Judgment day. Doing good deeds also wipes away or cancels out bad deeds and will also help Muslims be better people and increase their chances of getting into paradise.

Literary Analysis †Mr Van Gogh Essay

Owen Marshall’s ‘Mr Van Gogh’ addresses the inevitable issue of marginalisation of an individual. Through language features he influences the reader to reflect and consider action of the attitudes towards the socially marginalised. The social rejection of an individual is described through the voice of the town bully, and the cowardly acts of the narrator. Set in a small town in New Zealand it serves as a microcosm of contemporary society. Marshall presents a parable to educate the reader so they understand that there is only inclusion when there is exclusion. Marshall aims to influence the reader to take action and act in ways that challenge the universal social norms. Through the voice of the town bully Marshall presents the issue of Frank’s rejection. Marshall achieves this by emphasising the mockery demonstrated toward Frank. In, ‘†¦ a local turn to entertain the visitors. â€Å"Was he any good though, this Van Gogh bugger? †Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, Marshall uses direct speech from Mr Souness to tease Frank about his fondness of Van Gogh. Vincent Van Gogh is Frank’s passion, he admires him like nobody else. The rhetorical question that Souness derides Frank with is appropriate because it shows the reader colloquialism that Souness uses whilst he talks down to Frank. Frank is used as entertainment for the townspeople who sadistically take pleasure by ridiculing Frank’s devotion toward Van Gogh. This arouses guilt in the reader because it relates to the broader social context, showing the truth about society; Marshall uses representative characters to show that society must have â€Å"outcasts†. The reader realises that you can either be part of society or have individuality. The isolation of Frank is further evident in, ‘†¦ old bugger is holding up the democratic wishes of the town’, this shows the parallel relationship between Van Gogh and Frank through Marshall creating repetition in diction through the repetition of, ‘bugger’. Marshall used an extended metaphor, which further developed the character of Frank by relating him to Van Gogh, who was also marginalised. Ironically by calling Frank, ‘Mr Van Gogh’, the community are isolating him, destining him to follow Van Gogh’s fate – a misjudged genius dying alone, unrecognised in his ifetime for his work. The exclusion that Marshall created through the voice of the town bully is additionally seen through the acts of the bystanders in the community. The marginalisation of Frank is reflected through the cowardly acts of the narrator. The townspeople have no interest in standing up for Frank; he stands up for himself. In, ‘Mr Van Gogh was stand ing before the laughter with his arms outstretched like a cross’, the simile accentuates to the reader that Frank is derided, the town bully and his accompanies laugh at the fight he reluctantly devotes himself to. The Biblical allusion emphasises the use of the simile by connecting Frank to Jesus; this shows that Frank and Jesus have a parallel relationship – Frank is being used as a sacrifice for the entertainment of the townspeople, sacrificing himself by standing up for his hero, Van Gogh. The community proceeds to be spectators even if they believe the ridiculing is wrong; they convince themselves that the discrimination is not their business, highlighted in, ‘I went away from the fence without watching anymore’. Pontius Pilate walked away, ‘washed his hands’ of responsibility of Jesus’s crucifixion; the narrator relates because he sees Frank being used as a human sacrifice, yet he turns his back and walks away – not wanting to be part of the taunting acts, and too fearful for his own self worth if he stood up for Frank. Marshall elaborates to the reader the unwillingness to risk ourselves for others is human behaviour; such as following in the role of others. The community mirrors Souness; whereas Frank chooses to create his own path. By destroying Frank’s house Marshall symbolises the destruction of Frank’s individuality. Marshall shows the community is unconsciously making efforts to destroy any forms of individuality. In, ‘It rose like a phoenix in its own flames, and he wasn’t part of it anymore†¦ the colour, and purpose, and vision of Mr Van Gogh had gone out of himself and was there on the walls about us†, the listing of abstract nouns accentuates to the reader creating a link between Frank and Van Gogh – they both dedicated their lives to their passion. The relation to the mythical creature, phoenix, certify the resurrection of Frank; his soul is carried through his work, his house. This Classical allusion is used to demonstrate to the reader the symbolic aspects of the house, such as Frank’s originality. The simile in, ‘the house collapsed like an old elephant in the drought surrounded by so many enemies’, compares the townsfolk to scavengers – they are seen as cowards, only attacking when their prey seems weak. Marshall uses this because elephants symbolise sensitivity; the relation to an ‘elephant in drought’ underlines the vulnerability of the house whilst Frank is not present to protect his individuality. The author positions the reader to feel sympathy and horror about the destruction of the house, and evokes the sense of powerlessness within the reader because the majority overwhelms the individual. Marshall portrays to the reader that group mentality of the majority attempts to overwhelm individuality. Due to the concept of binary construction, society is predicated on inclusion and exclusion; in order to achieve a sense of community, marginalisation is inevitable and universal. Marshall’s short story makes the reader reflect about the hypocritical ways in which society works. There will always be Van Gogh as long as there are those who express their individuality; there will always be forms of exclusion through inclusion. In, ‘†¦ Souness kept laughing, †¦ rubbed his knuckles into his left eye because of the dust’, the Biblical allusion refers to the Book of Luke through, ‘dust’, emphasising the message, ‘Why point at the speck in your brother’s eye, when there is a plank in your own? First remove the plank from your own eye†¦ ’. Hypocrisy is shown by the townspeople judging others on their personal values, when they themselves have them. Marshall has caused the reader to realise the hypocrisy in their lives, the reader follows in majorities’ lead of society. Marshall causes the reader consider action by changing the ways they think about social marginalisation. It is important for young people to read this story to raise awareness of the reality of society; the social marginalisation in the story is an example of what happens in reality. People are laughed at for being different, however, they should be laughing because society is all the same.

Jane Eyre: a Critical Analysis of Gender Relations in Victorian Literature

Jane Eyre: A Critical Analysis of Gender Relations in Victorian Literature Modern society tends to view the Victorian era as one of oppression and constraint, despite the social and cultural upheaval of the time. This contradiction refers, in large, to the constraints imposed on the female gender. Women in Victorian England were viewed as inferior to their male counterparts, and were allocated clearly defined roles within society. Their treatment is a subject that is explored and critiqued throughout the literature of the time, and subsequent analysis by literary commentators.As Maynard comments (1984); ‘Few observers of the Victorian Scene have failed to point out the unusual degree of sexual restraint imposed upon social life and published literature’. However, it is in the work of the Bronte sisters that one witnesses the most comprehensive, and sometimes startling account of the social and gender restraints of the time. This paper will concentrate on the novel Jane E yre, written by Charlotte Bronte, and published in 1847 under the pseudonym Currer Bell.The adoption of a male pseudonym in itself reflects an underlying social prejudice towards female novelists, as outlined by the author; ‘Averse to personal publicity, we veiled our own names under those of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell†¦ while we did not like to declare ourselves women†¦ we had a vague impression that authoresses are liable to be looked on with prejudice’ (Smith, 2000). This somewhat disturbing observation by the author sets the tone of the novel itself, and implies what it is exactly that set the Bronte sisters apart from their contemporaries; their ‘unfeminine’ style of writing.Jane Eyre is, in effect, a love story, and concentrates on the main character’s quest to find true love. It cannot be classed, however, as a solely romantic novel as the character’s quest for love involves a struggle for equal treatment, social acceptance , and value. In doing so, she questions and refuses to conform to an array of social norms associated with the era. Jane’s desire to be loved is evident in the opening stages of the story, in her conversation with Helen Burn’s; ‘if others don't love me I would rather die than live†¦I would willingly submit to have the bone of my arm broken, or to let a bull toss me, or to stand behind a kicking horse, and let it dash its hoof at my chest’ (Bronte, 1847). This somewhat distressing insight into the young Eyre’s mindset captures her quest for ‘true love’, as opposed to the loveless relationships and marriages associated with the time. This association is witnessed by Jane’s eventual husband, Mr Rochester, in his first marriage;   Ã¢â‚¬ËœBertha Antoinette Mason, she was wanted by my father for her fortune. I hardly spoke with her before the wedding. I lived with her for 4 years.Her temper ripened, her vices sprang up, violent and unchaste’ (Bronte, 1847). Rochester’s summary of the ‘marriage’ is a disturbing insight into the arranged, and socially acceptable, marriages of the time. Bronte sets her protagonist apart from her peers in her views of love, but further cements this difference in her continued criticism of the attitudes of the Victorian class. This is apparent in chapter 17 in particular, when she questions her growing feelings for Mr Rochester; ‘You have nothing to do with the master of Thornfield, further than to receive the salary he gives you for teaching his protege†¦. o don't make him the object of your fine feelings’. (Bronte, 1847) It becomes clear, however, that despite Jane’s attempts to restrain her emotions, she is fighting a losing battle and is becoming increasingly enraptured with Mr Rochester, reacting in a heated manner upon receipt of a letter from him; ‘And while she broke the seal and perused the document, I went on t aking my coffee†¦ Why my hand shook, and why I involuntarily spilt half the contents of my cup into my saucer, I did not choose to consider’ (Bronte, 1847).Jane’s employment as a governess by Mr Rochester further complicates her situation and her increasing love for her employer. Hedgecock summarises the role of the governess in Victorian society (2008): ‘in ordinary Victorian life, the governess is the genteel spinster, self-effacing, having no ambitions outside the home in which she is subjected to a life of dependency’. Eyre, however, was not willing to conform to ‘ordinary Victorian life’, nor was she willing to fit the mould of the unassuming governess.Eyre’s constant struggle with her feelings for Rochester is impacted throughout by the norms of society at the time, and her resilience to them. She is unwilling to marry Rochester while Bertha is still in the picture, as it would equate her to a mistress, a position that she wh olly disapproves of and one which Rochester wishes her to take: ‘As a married man you will shun me, keep out of my way: just now you have refused to kiss me’. (Bronte, 1847). Despite Eyre eventually marrying Rochester, when his wife has passed away, she refuses throughout to conform to and comply with the social etiquette of the time.Just like her creator, she is almost masculine throughout the novel, thus portrayed through her personal values and strength of character. It can be understood that Charlotte Bronte depicted herself through the life of Jane Eyre, and used her fictional character as one whom modelled and almost mimicked Bronte as a person. Eyre possessed the same strong drive in seeking equality and independence as a woman. Her refusal in accepting the conformities of the time mirrors Bronte.Bernstein (1997) sets the scene for those non-familiar with the Victorian era: ‘in the larger cultural context of Victorian England in which women are not accorded by law or by custom much opportunity to act on their own behalf’. This supports the motive behind Bronte and her actions. It portrays the gender roles, which strongly influenced people’s behaviour and identities. This ‘social rule’ fuelled women’s endurance of the condescending attitudes about a woman’s place, intelligence, and voice. Thus, in turn, Jane became subjected to an uphill battle to become independent and recognized for her personal qualities.Bronte attempts to illustrate how personal virtues are better indicators of character than class. The red-room mentioned in the novel is a metaphorical image for Jane’s entrapment in the life she is expected to lead. A life of entrapment from society, limiting her freedom due to her independent streak, race and foremost – gender. Eyre’s struggles in attempting to overcome the oppression are all of a display through the feminine movement, in which the Bronte sisters each p layed a significant role in setting off. Eyre displays characteristics of masculinity, such of which in Victorian era would only be confined to that of male prominence.The strong connection made between both author and character is evident to the reader. In conclusion, Jane Eyre captures the struggle and oppression faced by the women of Victorian Britain. Despite the eventual happy-ending to the novel, the lead character is forced to overcome strict social and gender restrictions in order to be with her true love. We see throughout the novel, however, that Eyre is an exceptional character at the time and represents only a small number of women who were quietly moving against society’s expectations of them.Charlotte, the eldest of the Bronte sisters, received reputably the most critical recognition with her creation, Jane Eyre. Overall, the three Bronte sisters are highly known in English literature for their historical prominence that made them significant to the era of the V ictorians. Their livelihood painted the path in which their work followed and their upbringing greatly influenced their beliefs and outlooks. The three sister’s strong and willing characteristics aided them in delivering what can be perceived as staples in literature, and for centuries become only stronger with growth and eminence.As Winnifrith (1988) stated; ‘the Brontes had the courage to break away from the almost universal belief that sinners merited eternal punishment’. This reflects upon their independence and strength in striving for their own beliefs and expressing their opinions. These opinions were of such strong stature, resulting in the power to in script their everlasting effect on the literature of the Victorian era and even on English literature as a whole. Bibliography Bernstein, Susan David. Confessional Subjects: Revelations of Gender and Power in Victorian Literature & Culture. USA: The University of North Carolina Press, 1997.Bronte, Charlotte . Jane Eyre. United Kingdom: Smith, Elder and Co, 1847. Hedgecock, Jennifer. The Femme Fatale in Victorian Literature: The Danger and the Sexual Threat. New York: Cambria Press, 2008. Maynard, John. Charlotte Bronte and Sexuality. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Smith, Margaret. The Letters of Charlotte Bronte: Volume II: 1848-1851, with a selection of letters by family and friends. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press, 2000. Winnifrith, Tom. The Brontes and their Background: Romance and Reality, Second Edition. London: The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1988.

Combating the Threat of Nuclear Terrorism

Statement at end of two-day summit in Seoul pledges strong action and closer co-operation against nuclear terrorism. | World leaders attending a summit in the South Korean capital Seoul have pledged strong action and closer co-operation to combat the threat of nuclear terrorism.In a statement issued at the end of the two-day 53-nation nuclear summit, the leaders reaffirmed â€Å"shared goals of nuclear disarmament, nuclear proliferation and peaceful uses of nuclear energy†. â€Å"Nuclear terrorism continues to be one of the most challenging threats to international security,† it said. â€Å"Defeating this threat requires strong national measures and international co-operation given its potential global, political, economic, social and psychological consequences. The statement welcomed â€Å"substantive progress† on national commitments made at the   first nuclear security summit in Washington in 2010. Action stressed Before the summit concluded, South Korean P resident Lee Myung-bak said nuclear terrorism remained a â€Å"grave threat†, while US President Barack Obama said action was important. Chinese President Hu Jintao urged the group to work together on the issue. â€Å"The planned missile launch North Korea recently announced would go against the international community's nuclear non-proliferation effort and violate UN Security Council resolutions. – Yoshihiko Noda, Japanese PM While the official agenda of the summit was to strengthen measures to track the movement of nuclear materials worldwide, much of the dialogue focussed on efforts to get North Korea to back off a planned rocket launch scheduled for next month and return to disarmament talks. North Korea announced earlier this month that it would send a satellite into space aboard a long-range rocket. Pyongyang has said the launch is part of its peaceful space programme and says a new southern flight path is meant to avoid other countries.Previous rockets have bee n fired over Japan. The secretive North was widely criticised on the sidelines of the meeting, including by main ally China, but host Seoul has explicitly stated Pyongyang's weapons of mass destruction programmes were off the table during the summit itself. Defiant North Korea On Tuesday, a North Korean foreign ministry spokesman said that the launch would go ahead as planned. North Korea †will never give up the launch of a satellite for peaceful purposes†', the spokesman said in a statement in the official KCNA news agency.A report by the KCNA also described the †weather satellite† Pyongyang planned to launch as useful for †the study of weather forecast needed for agriculture and other economic fields†. Yoshihiko Noda, the Japanese prime minister,  speaking at the summit, called on Pyongyang to cancel the rocket launch, saying that it would violate UN Security Council resolutions. Nuclear stockpiles| * Russia: 10,000 * US: 8,500 * France: 300 * China: 240 * UK: 225 * Pakistan: 90-110 * India: 80-100 * Israel: 80 * North Korea: fewer than 10Source: Federation of American Scientists| The planned missile launch North Korea recently announced would go against the international community's nuclear non-proliferation effort and violate UN Security Council resolutions,† Noda said. Obama had urged North Korean leaders to abandon their rocket plan or risk jeopardising their country's future and thwarting a recent US pledge of food aid in return for nuclear and missile test moratoria, considered a breakthrough after years of deadlock. On Monday while speaking at a university in Seoul, Obama said that he  was  pushing for â€Å"a world without nuclear weapons†.Iran's nuclear programme was also on the minds of the summit participants, as Obama met the leaders of Russia and China on the sidelines to work towards a resolution. Obama had said that the threat of nuclear weapons remained a potent challenge for the globe to confront, telling foreign leaders that â€Å"the security of the world depends on the actions that we take†. Neither Iran nor North Korea had participated in the summit. Asia-Pacific | | S Korean minister warns of energy crisis | |Economy minister Hong Suk-Woo says â€Å"unprecedented† power shortages possible after two nuclear reactors are shut down. Last Modified: 05 Nov 2012 09:01 inShare1EmailPrintShareFeedback| S Korea operates 23 nuclear power reactors which meet more than 35 per cent of the country's electricity needs [EPA]| A South Korean minister has sounded a warning  about  Ã¢â‚¬Å"unprecedented† power shortages after two nuclear reactors were shut down to replace components that had not been properly vetted. The two units at the Yeonggwang nuclear complex were shut down on Monday and may remain offline until early January. It's inevitable that we will experience unprecedented power shortage during the coming winter with the two reactors shut,† Hong Suk-Woo, the economy minister, said. However, he said the â€Å"non-core† components posed no safety threat and were unrelated to a string of systems malfunctions at reactors this year that triggered calls for a safety review. Last month, authorities temporarily shut down two 1,000-megawatt reactors at separate nuclear plants after system malfunctions which were also blamed for another reactor at Yeonggwang being tripped into automatic shutdown in July.Engineers will replace more than 5,000 fuses in the units shut down, cooling fans and other parts for which suppliers had provided bogus quality certificates. â€Å"Comprehensive safety check-ups are necessary at these two reactors where the uncertified parts were used extensively,† Hong said. South Korea operates 23 nuclear power reactors which meet more than 35 per cent of the country's electricity needs. It plans to build an additional 16 reactors by 2030. The government has  pledged to continue using nuclea r energy despite public concerns arising from last year's nuclear disaster in Japan.If the two Yeonggwang reactors are not brought back online as scheduled, Hong warned of a â€Å"dramatic† drop in national power reserves to 300,000 kilowatts in January, compared to the government target of 4. 5 million kilowatts. â€Å"Energy authorities are preparing a super-intense power supply emergency plan, which will be carried out in mid-November,† Hong said, without elaborating. All parts supplied for use in South Korea's nuclear plants require quality and safety warranties from one of 12 international organisations designated by Seoul.Eight suppliers cited by Hong faked 60 warranties covering nearly 7,700 items that had been provided at a cost of $750,000, Hong said. Of the total, more than 5,200 parts have been used in five reactors – 99 per cent of them in the two Yeonggwang units closed on Monday. Hong said prosecutors would investigate the suppliers as well as poss ible collusion by officials of the state-run Korea Hydro and Nuclear Power (KHNP). | Inside Story | | Is nuclear terrorism preventable? | |World leaders gather for their second summit to strengthen efforts in securing nuclear material around the world. | Around 50 world leaders have gathered in South Korea to discuss measures to fight the threat of nuclear terrorism, including the protection of nuclear materials and facilities, as well as the prevention of trafficking of nuclear materials. Barack Obama, the US president, used the opening day of the nuclear security summit to set out a series of wide-ranging goals on nuclear policy.He praised achievements made so far, and promised more would emerge from these discussions. â€Å"We have to question whether the rules we have today are adequate, and my view is that they're totally inadequate. There's no uniformity, no requirement to control materials a certain way. â€Å"Kenneth Luongo, Fissile Materials Working Group| The summit repr esents the half way point of a four-year process set out by Obama with the goal of locking down nuclear materials worldwide and preventing their use in a terrorist attack.But this year’s summit takes place against a backdrop of growing tensions over the nuclear standoff with Iran and concerns about North Korea's plans to launch a satellite next month – a launch that the US, South Korea and others believe is a missile test. So, how big a threat is nuclear terrorism? Who sets the criteria for acquiring nuclear weapons? Are there grounds for accusing Western governments of double standards? And can a problem of such magnitude be tackled by voluntary agreements made at the summit?Inside Story, with presenter Laura Kyle, discusses with Richard Burt, the chief US negotiator in the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty who is also the US chairman of Global Zero which seeks elimination of nuclear weapons; Mark Hibbs, a senior associate in the Nuclear Policy Program at Carnegie Endow ment for International Peace; and Riad Kah-waji with the Institute for Near East and Gulf Military Analysis. â€Å"Even after New Start [Treaty signed with Russia two years ago], the US will still have more than 15,000 deployed nuclear weapons and some 5,000 warheads.I firmly believe that we can ensure the security of the United States and our allies, maintain a strong deterrent against any threat and still pursue further reductions in our nuclear arsenal. â€Å"Barack Obama, the US president| Nuclear warheads around the world: Though the  exact number of nuclear weapons in each country's possession is a closely-guarded national secret, there are estimates available. Of the countries that are members of the non-proliferation treaty: * Russia is believed to have around 10,000 nuclear warheads * The US is estimated to have 8,500 France is believed to have 300 * China is estimated to have 240 * The UK is said to have 225 Of the non-member countries: * Israel is said to have 80 nucl ear warheads, though  it refuses to confirm or deny whether  it has any * Pakistan is thought to have between  90 and 110 * India is believed to have between 80 to 100 * North Korea is believed to have enough material to  produce up to 10 devices Asia-pacific | | South Korea set to host nuclear summit | | Security and safety on agenda, but diplomatic fallout from North Korea's rocket launch plan could dominate on sidelines. |South Korea is preparing to host the heads of more than 50 nations and international organisations at a nuclear security summit in Seoul. The meeting, starting on Monday,  comes a year after the meltdown at the Fukushima nuclear plant in Japan and participants will  discuss efforts to stop the spread of nuclear weapons and how to restore faith in civil nuclear energy. Participants include US President Barack Obama, who is due to visit the border zone between the two Koreas on Sunday, and Chinese President Hu Jintao. The controversial nuclear programm es of North Korea and Iran are not due to be formally discussed.But Obama is expected to hold talks on the sidelines with both Hu and South Korean President  Lee Myung-Bak over North Korea's plans to launch a satellite into space aboard a long-range rocket next month. Dozens of protesters from South Korea, Japan, Taiwan and Thailand gathered near the summit venue in downtown Seoul on Friday to denounce the gathering, saying  nuclear energy was threatening the safety of their lives. â€Å"The nuclear energy industry told us the industry is safe, but actually, there have been many accidents that happened,† Lee Heonseok, a protester, said. We think those accidents will be repeated in the future. Therefore, we insist the nuclear energy industry should disappear. † Richard Broinowski, a professor at the University of Sydney and former Australian ambassador to South Korea, told Al Jazeera that the summit was aimed at rebuilding confidence in the nuclear industry. â€Å"T he point of the safety nuclear conference should be about terrorism and the breakdown of systems, such as what happened in Fukushima, and what to do about them,† he said. But the summit could be overshadowed by diplomatic fallout from North Korea's announcement of its planned rocket launch.North Korea said earlier this month that it had halted its nuclear programme, weapons testing and long-range missile launches and was ready to return to international talks in return for US food aid. The US says April's rocket launch would violate that agreement, while Japan's defence minister said on Friday he had ordered the military to prepare to shoot down the rocket if it entered Japanese airspace. China, North Korea's closest regional, has also expressed concern that the launch could endanger regional stability. North Korea halts nuclear programme | Uranium enrichment, weapons testing and long-range missile launches to be stopped in return for US food aid. | North Korea has agreed to s top nuclear tests, uranium enrichment and long-range missile launches and to allow international inspectors to visit its Yongbyon nuclear complex in return for food aid from the United States. The announcement, made simultaneously by the US state department and North Korea's official news agency on Wednesday, paves the way for the possible resumption of six-party disarmament negotiations with the Communist state.It also marks a significant policy shift by North Korea's reclusive leadership  after the death of longtime ruler Kim Jong-il in December. â€Å"The DPRK, upon request by the US and with a view to maintaining positive atmosphere for the DPRK-US high-level talks, agreed to a moratorium on nuclear tests, long-range missile launches, and uranium enrichment activity at Yongbyon and allow the IAEA to monitor the moratorium on uranium enrichment while productive dialogues continue,†Ã‚  the  official KCNA news agency said. North Korea is known formally as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK).China, North Korea's only powerful ally, approved the announcement. Foreign ministry spokesman Hong Lei said in a statement posted on Thursday that China welcomed efforts by the two sides to improve relations and preserve peace and stability on the Korean peninsula. He reiterated China's willingness to participate in efforts to restart the six-party talks. ‘Profound concerns' The state department was cautious in its response but said Washington was ready to finalise details of a proposed food aid package of 240,000 metric tonnes of nutritional assistance, and that more aid could be agreed based on continued need. Secret talks that led to the agreement were held at the North Korean embassy in Beijing [AFP]| â€Å"The United States still has profound concerns regarding North Korean behaviour across a wide range of areas, but today's announcement reflects important, if limited, progress in addressing some of these,† a state department stat ement said. A South Korean foreign ministry spokesman said the development reflected â€Å"the close work Seoul and Washington have done to try to resolve the nuclear standoff,† while the International Atomic Energy Agency called it â€Å"an important step forward†.Al Jazeera's Kimberly Halkett, reporting from Washington DC, said that its linking â€Å"nutritional assistance† with political  developments was contrary to standard US foreign policy. â€Å"[This move] is certainly going to come under the microscope in terms of US policy. The US has used [food aid] successfully as leverage and there is going to be some talk about that,† she said. The announcement comes as the Obama administration steps up pressure on Iran over its atomic ambitions, which Western governments fear are aimed at producing nuclear weapons.It followed talks between the US and North Korea last week in Beijing, the first such meeting since veteran leader Kim Jong-il's son, Kim Jong -un, succeeded his father as leader. Christopher Hill, the former chief US negotiator in the six-party talks, said it was an important step that Kim's son, Kim Jong-un, had made such a high-profile  decision in the wake of his father's death. He said that the military, which is influenced by Chang Song-taek,  Ã‚  Kim Jong-il's powerful brother in law, had probably played a role in the agreement. I think the first order of business is to try to figure out the terms by which we provide the food aid,† Hill said. â€Å"We're going to have to make sure the North Koreans have  the aid and that we can monitor that the food aid goes to the right people. †Ã‚   Six-party talks North Korea agreed to curtail its nuclear activities under an aid-for-denuclearisation agreement reached in September 2005 by six-party talks bringing together North and South Korea, China, Japan, Russia and the US.Under the terms of that deal, the North agreed to abandon its nuclear programmes in exc hange for economic and diplomatic incentives to be provided by the other parties involved in the negotiations. But the embryonic deal was never fully implemented. Instead, the North held two nuclear bomb tests, in 2006 and 2009, and later disclosed a uranium enrichment programme, giving it a second path to obtaining fissile material for bombs, in addition to its long-standing programme of producing plutonium.The US, South Korea and their allies had been sceptical of North Korea's assertions that it stands ready to return to the six-party talks, and said they would insist on evidence of the country's willingness to denuclearise before any such talks could resume. World leaders: Nuclear terrorism a ‘grave threat' Comments (250) Cannot play media. You do not have the correct version of the flash player. Download the correct version President Obama: †There are still too many bad actors in search of these dangerous materials† Continue reading the main story Related Stor ies * Which countries have nuclear weapons? North Korea's missile programme * Timeline: Nuclear stand-off World leaders have called for closer co-operation to tackle the threat of nuclear terrorism at a summit on nuclear security in Seoul. A communique at the end of the summit reiterated a joint call to secure â€Å"vulnerable nuclear material†. South Korean President Lee Myung-bak said nuclear terrorism remained a â€Å"grave threat†, while US President Barack Obama said action was key. The meeting was dominated by North Korea's plan to launch a rocket. North Korea says the long-range rocket will carry a satellite when it goes up in April.The US says any launch would violate UN resolutions and constitute a missile test. Iran's nuclear programme was also on the minds of the summit participants, with Mr Obama pledging to meet the leaders of Russia and China on the sidelines to work towards a resolution. ‘Bad actors' At the meeting, world leaders discussed measures to fight the threat of nuclear terrorism, including the protection of nuclear materials and facilities, as well as the prevention of trafficking of nuclear materials. Continue reading the main story Analysis Jonathan Marcus BBC Diplomatic CorrespondentThe communique describes nuclear terrorism as one of the most challenging threats to international security. But the responsibility to maintain security over nuclear materials lies firmly with states rather than international bodies. And any effort to try to establish or impose common international standards inevitably raises concerns in some quarters that the world's major powers are seeking to intrude into the nuclear affairs of other countries. That's why this communique reaffirms that measures to strengthen nuclear security will not hamper the rights of states to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.The summit urges states to minimise the use of highly enriched uranium – one of the building blocks for a nuclear bomb . The summit highlights the threat from radioactive materials more generally. But again all the summit can do is urge states to take measures to secure these materials and work towards ratifying international conventions on nuclear security. It is hardly a resounding outcome from a gathering over-shadowed by the more immediate wrangling over North Korea's and Iran's nuclear activities.A joint communique reaffirmed their commitment to nuclear disarmament, non-proliferation and peaceful uses of nuclear energy. â€Å"Nuclear terrorism continues to be one of the most challenging threats to international security,† it said. â€Å"Defeating this threat requires strong national measures and international co-operation given its potential global, political, economic, social and psychological consequences. † But it omitted a reference made in a draft communique last Thursday on the need for â€Å"concrete steps† towards a world without nuclear weapons, AFP news agency rep orts.There are currently no binding international agreements on how to protect nuclear material stored peacefully inside its home country, says the BBC's Lucy Williamson in Seoul. An amendment seeking to do that is still unratified after seven years. Addressing the summit, Mr Obama warned there were still â€Å"too many bad actors† who were threatening to stockpile and use †dangerous† nuclear material. â€Å"It would not take much, just a handful or so of these materials, to kill hundreds of thousands of innocent people and that's not an exaggeration, that's the reality that we face,† he said. The security of the world depends on the actions that we take. † Mr Hu called for â€Å"an international environment conducive to boosting nuclear security† to be created and Mr Lee called for concrete action to tackle a threat that posed â€Å"a grave challenge† to peace. The summit was attended by almost 60 leaders from around the world. Rocket l aunch Meetings on Monday were overshadowed by North Korea's planned launch, scheduled to take place between 12 and 16 April. Pyongyang says it is intended to mark the 100th anniversary of the birth of North Korea's founding leader Kim Il-sung.Continue reading the main story Nuclear stockpiles in numbers * Russia: 10,000 * US: 8,500 * France: 300 * China: 240 * UK: 225 * Pakistan: 90-110 * India: 80-100 * Israel: 80 * North Korea: fewer than 10 Source: Federation of American Scientists * Nuclear weapons: Who has what? On Tuesday, a North Korean foreign ministry spokesman said that the launch would go ahead as planned and criticised Mr Obama's stance as †confrontational†. North Korea â€Å"will never give up the launch of a satellite for peaceful purposes†, the spokesman said in a statement in the official KCNA news agency.A KCNA report also described the †weather satellite† Pyongyang planned to launch as useful for †the study of weather forecast n eeded for agriculture and other economic fields†. Japanese Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda, speaking at the summit, called on Pyongyang to cancel the rocket launch, saying that it would violate UN Security Council resolutions. â€Å"As such, the international community strongly urges North Korea to exercise restraint and cancel the launch,† he said. The resolutions were passed after a similar launch in April 2009.Japan is particularly concerned as that rocket was launched over the country three years ago. The US and Chinese presidents met on Monday on the sidelines of the summit and agreed to co-ordinate their response to any â€Å"potential provocation† if Pyongyang went ahead with the launch. South Korea and the US say North Korea risks further sanctions and isolation if it does not cancel its plans. Seoul has also warned it will shoot down the rocket if it strays over South Korean territory. Which countries have nuclear weapons? There are an estimated 20,000 war heads in the world's combined stockpile of nuclear weapons.Of these, almost 5,000 are considered operational and about 2,000 belonging to the US and Russia are believed to be ready for use at short notice. Although the exact number of nuclear weapons in each country's possession is top secret, the Federation of American Scientists has made best estimates about the size and composition of national nuclear weapon stockpiles based on publicly available information. Their sources include the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists and the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Countries and their nuclear weapons |Country | Operational and strategic weapons* | Total arsenal** | Source: Federation of American Scientists, as of 6 March 2012| Russia| 2,430| 10,000| US| 1,950| 8,500| France| 290| 300| China| 0| 240| UK| 160| 225| Pakistan| 0| 90-110| India| 0| 80-100| Israel| 0| 80| North Korea| 0| Fewer than 10| *Strategic weapons are designed to target cities, missile locations and mi litary headquarters as part of a strategic plan **Total arsenal inventory includes non-strategic and non-deployed weapons as well as stockpiles North Korea's missile programmeContinue reading the main story Related Stories * North Korea rocket plan condemned * N Korea agrees to nuclear freeze * North Korea country profile North Korea is believed to have more than 1,000 missiles of varying capabilities, including long-range missiles which could one day strike the US. Pyongyang's programme has progressed over the last few decades from tactical artillery rockets in the 1960s and 70s to short-range and medium-range ballistic missiles in the 1980s and 90s. Systems capable of greater ranges are understood to be under research and development.According to the Council on Foreign Relations, an independent think-tank, some of North Korea's missiles also have the capability to carry nuclear warheads. However, the country is not yet thought to have developed such warheads. The country's missile programme has mainly been developed from the Scud. It first obtained tactical missiles from the Soviet Union as early as 1969, but its first Scuds reportedly came via Egypt in 1976. Egypt is believed to have supplied North Korea with missiles and designs in return for its support against Israel in the Yom Kippur War.By 1984, North Korea was building its own Scuds, the Hwasong-5 and Hwasong-6, as well as a medium-range missile, the Nodong. Its latest missile combines these technologies to give a long-range missile, the Taepodong. In 2006 and 2009 it test-fired a new missile called the Taepodong-2, which experts say could have a range of many thousands of miles. The missile failed to perform on both occasions. Short range missiles North Korea is believed to be in possession of a variety of short-range missiles, such as the KN-02, which can reach up to 120km and could target military installations in neighbouring South Korea.The Hwasong-5 and Hwasong-6, also known as Scud-B and C, hav e longer ranges of 300km and 500km respectively, according to the US Center for Nonproliferation Studies. These missiles can deliver conventional warheads, but may also have biological, chemical and nuclear capabilities. The Hwasong-5 and 6 have both been tested and deployed, defence experts believe, and would enable North Korea to strike any area in South Korea. Relations between the two Koreas are fraught and they remain, technically, in a state of war. The two countries never signed a peace treaty after an armistice ended their 1950-53 conflict.They are separated by one of the world's most heavily fortified borders and both have strong military capabilities. Nodong missile North Korea went on to embark on a programme in the late 1980s to build a new missile, known as the Nodong, with a range of 1,000km. Its likely target is Japan. But, according to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, little is actually known about the development, production, and deployment of the Nodong. The institute believes the weapon is not accurate enough for effective use against military targets, such as US military bases in Japan.A March 2006 report by the US Center for Non-proliferation Studies, concluded it had a â€Å"circular error probable† of 2km to 4km, meaning that half the missiles fired would fall outside a circle of that radius. Analysts therefore believe that should the Nodong be used as a weapon against Japan, it could lead to high levels of civilian casualties. Musudan missile The Musudan, also known as the Nodong-B or the Taepodong-X, is an intermediate-range ballistic missile. Its likely targets are Okinawa, Japan, and US bases in the Pacific.Range estimates differ dramatically. Israeli intelligence believes they have a 2,500km range while the US Missile Defense Agency estimates they have a range of 3,200km; other sources put the upper limit at 4,000km. These differences are due in large part to the fact that the missile has never been tested p ublicly, according to the Center for Nonproliferation Studies. Its payload is also unknown. Taepodong-1 and 2 missiles (including the Unha space launcher) The Taepodong-1 – known as Paektusan-1 in North Korea – was the country's first multi-stage missile.Based on satellite photographs, independent think-tank the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) believes the first stage is a Nodong missile and the second stage a Hwasong-6. Continue reading the main story Missile ranges * Short range: 1,000km or less * Medium range: 1,000-3,000km * Intermediate range: 3,000-5,500 km * Intercontinental: Greater than 5,500km Source: Federation of American Scientists It has an estimated range of 2,200km, but is understood to be even less accurate than the Nodong. The Taepodong-1 is understood to have test flown once in August 1998 as a space launcher.Instead of a normal ballistic missile payload, the missile carried a third stage that was meant to send a small satellite into low Eart h orbit. The FAS believes that although the first two stages worked, the third stage did not function correctly and no satellite entered orbit. The federation also says it is possible the Taepodong-1 was always meant as a space launcher and was never intended to be an intermediate range military missile. The Taepodong-2 – or Paektusan-2 – is also a two to three-stage ballistic missile, but is a significant advance on the Taepodong-1. Its range has been estimated at anything between 5,000-15,000km.The Center for Nonproliferation Studies puts the figure at a maximum estimated 6,000km. Taepodong-2 and its technology has been flight tested twice – in 2006 and 2009. It failed to perform on both occasions. In the early morning of 5 July 2006 (still 4 July in the US), it flew only 42 seconds before exploding – according to US sources. A three-stage space launcher version of the Taepodong-2 was then used in a failed attempt to send a satellite into space in April 2009. The launch was widely condemned by the US and South Korea, among others, as cover for a long-range missile test.North Korea refers to the space launcher version of the Taepodong-2 as Unha – Korean for galaxy – and describes it as a â€Å"carrier rocket†. Although space launches and missile launches follow slightly different trajectories and the rocket may be optimised for one purpose or the other, the basic technology used is the same. This includes the structure, engines, and fuel. If the Taepodong-2 were successfully launched and it reached its maximum estimated range, its increased power could put Australia and parts of the US, among other countries, within range. North Korea profile * Overview * Facts * Leaders * Media Timeline For decades North Korea has been one of the world's most secretive societies. It is one of the few countries still under nominally communist rule. North Korea's nuclear ambitions have exacerbated its rigidly maintained isolatio n from the rest of the world. The country emerged in 1948 amid the chaos following the end of World War II. Its history is dominated by its Great Leader, Kim Il-sung, who shaped political affairs for almost half a century. After the Korean War, Kim Il-sung introduced the personal philosophy of Juche, or self-reliance, which became a guiding light for North Korea's development.Kim Il-sung died in 1994, but the post of president has been assigned â€Å"eternally† to him. Continue reading the main story At a glance * Politics: A family dynasty heads a secretive, communist regime which tolerates no dissent * Economy: North Korea's command economy is dilapidated, hit by natural disasters, poor planning and a failure to modernise * International: The armistice of 1953 ended armed conflict on the Korean peninsular, but the two Koreas are technically still at war; tensions have been exacerbated in recent decades by North Korea's nuclear ambitions Country profiles compiled by BBC Moni toringDecades of this rigid state-controlled system have led to stagnation and a leadership dependent on the cult of personality. Aid agencies have estimated that up to two million people have died since the mid-1990s because of acute food shortages caused by natural disasters and economic mismanagement. The country relies on foreign aid to feed millions of its people. The totalitarian state also stands accused of systematic human rights abuses. Reports of torture, public executions, slave labour, and forced abortions and infanticides in prison camps have emerged.A US-based rights group has estimated that there are up to 200,000 political prisoners in North Korea. Pyongyang has accused successive South Korean governments of being US â€Å"puppets†, but South Korean President Kim Dae-jung's visit in 2000 signalled a thaw in relations. Seoul's â€Å"sunshine policy† towards the North aimed to encourage change through dialogue and aid. Nuclear tensions This tentative reac hing-out to the world was dealt a blow in 2002 by Pyongyang's decision to reactivate a nuclear reactor and to expel international inspectors.In October 2006 North Korea said it had successfully tested a nuclear weapon, spreading alarm throughout the region. Since then, intensive diplomatic efforts have aimed to rein in North Korea's nuclear ambitions. After years of on-and-off talks, a deal was thrashed out in February 2007 under which Pyongyang agreed to shut down its main nuclear reactor in return for aid and diplomatic concessions. But negotiations stalled as North Korea accused its negotiating partners – the US, South Korea, Japan, China and Russia – of failing to meet agreed obligations.North Korean soldiers keep watch over the Demilitarized Zone between North and South Tensions between North Korea and the rest of the world increased steadily again from late 2008 onwards, especially after the new South Korean president, Lee Myung-bak, ended his predecessor's †Å"sunshine policy† of rapprochement with the North. In April 2009 North Korea walked out of international talks aimed at ending its nuclear activities. The following month the country carried out its second underground nuclear test and announced that it no longer considered itself bound by the terms of the 1953 truce that ended the war between the two Koreas.Tensions reached a new high in spring 2010, when the South accused North Korea of sinking one of its warships, the Cheonan, and cut off all cross-border trade. Pyongyang denied the claims, and in turn severed all ties with Seoul. After the US imposed tough sanctions in August, the North began to make overtures again. Its then leader, Kim Jong-il, signalled a readiness to resume six-party nuclear talks during a visit to China, and indicated a willingness to accept Southern aid to cope with major flood damage.Kim Jong-il's successor in December 2011, his third son Kim Jong-un, continued the dynastic policy of sending out mix ed signals. He agreed to suspend long-range missile tests in order to receive US food aid in February 2012, only to challenge the US and the other frontline states almost immediately by announcing a forthcoming â€Å"rocket-launched satellite† for April, to mark Kim Il-Sung's birthday. In October 2012, Pyongyang responded to the unveiling of a new missile deal between Seoul and Washington by saying that it had missiles capable of hitting the US mainland.North Korea maintains one of the world's largest standing armies and militarism pervades everyday life. But standards of training, discipline and equipment in the force are reported to be low. Q&A: North Korea nuclear programme Negotiations over North Korea's nuclear programme have been a stop-start process North Korea's nuclear programme remains a source of deep concern for the international community, amid reports from South Korea suggesting Pyongyang is planning a third nuclear test. The BBC looks at North Korea's nuclear a mbitions and multi-national efforts to curtail them.Has North Korea got the bomb? Not yet. In 2006 and again in 2009 North Korea announced that it had conducted successful nuclear weapons tests. Satellite data from P'unggye-yok, in a remote area in the east of the country, appeared to tally with claims that the experiments had been conducted underground. The North is believed to possess enough weapons-grade plutonium for at least six bombs – but experts say it has not yet solved the problem of making a nuclear warhead small enough to fit into a missile. Opinions vary on how close the regime is to completing this process of â€Å"miniaturisation†.American expert Siegfried Hecker told South Korea's Yonhap news agency late last year that a third nuclear test could be sufficient for them to master the technology. Mr Hecker is one of the few people to have seen the North's capabilities first-hand. In 2010, he was shown a uranium-enrichment facility with 1,000 centrifuges an d said he was â€Å"stunned† by the sophistication of the plant. He said he saw no evidence that the fuel was for anything other than generating power, but added that it could be â€Å"readily converted to produce highly enriched uranium bomb fuel†. What does the regime say about its programme?Over the years Pyongyang has issued brash, contradictory and often inflammatory statements about its programme. After the 2009 nuclear test, an official communique stated that the test was â€Å"part of measures to enhance the Republic's self-defensive nuclear deterrent in all directions†. And in a rare unguarded moment after the 2006 test, deputy foreign minister Kang Sok-ju told reporters: â€Å"Why would we abandon nuclear weapons? Are you saying we conducted a nuclear test in order to abandon them? † Yet Pyongyang also regularly proclaims that it is committed to a nuclear-free Korean peninsula.It has frequently promised to give up part or all of its programme in return for aid. In February 2012, the regime promised to allow UN inspectors back into the country and to suspend uranium enrichment in return for US food aid. But shortly after that it launched a rocket in apparent defiance of UN resolutions banning missile tests, leaving that deal dead in the water. What has the international community done about the programme? Multiple rounds of negotiations have taken place between the North, the US, Russia, China, Japan and South Korea aimed at persuading Pyongyang to give up its nuclear ambitions.In September 2005, after more than two years of on-off talks, North Korea agreed a landmark deal to give up its nuclear ambitions in return for economic aid and political concessions. But implementing the deal proved extremely difficult and the talks stalled in April 2009 over the issue of whether North Korea was fully disclosing its nuclear assets. In July 2011, contact began again between the US and North Korea aimed at restarting the talks. Less t han six months later, North Korea's long-time leader Kim Jong-il died. He was succeeded by his son, the young and inexperienced Kim Jong-un.In February 2012 North Korea suddenly announced it had agreed to suspend nuclear activities. It also said it was placing a moratorium on nuclear and long-range missile tests. Its reward would be food aid from the US. But that deal has now been suspended following Pyongyang's 13 April 2012 rocket launch. What is the current state of the North's programme? The Yongbyon site is thought to be North Korea's main nuclear facility. The North has pledged several times to halt operations there and even destroyed the tower in 2008.But both the US and South Korea have said in the past that they believed the North had additional sites linked to a uranium-enrichment programme. And Mr Hecker's revelations in 2010 of a hitherto undeclared plant suggest that clandestine nuclear work is continuing. In December 2010, US State Department spokesman Philip Crowley s aid that the work being done at the site shown to Mr Hecker could not have been achieved if other related sites did not already exist. â€Å"We're very conscious of the fact that, in the recent revelations to American delegations, what they saw did not come out of thin air,† he said. It certainly reflects work being done at at least one other site. † Why does the issue of North Korea's nuclear capability matter so much? The two Koreas remain technically at war, since no peace treaty was signed after the 1950-53 Korean conflict. Tension has been high since an international panel blamed North Korea for sinking a South Korean navy warship in March 2010, with the loss of 46 lives. Ties were further strained in November 2010, when North Korea shelled a border island, killing four South Koreans.North Korea has a million-strong army and its border with the South is one of the most militarised in the world. Pyongyang's nuclear tests have sparked debate in Japan on allowing its military the option to launch a pre-emptive strike if it fears a missile attack. A fully nuclear North Korea could trigger an East Asian arms race, as Japan, South Korea and Taiwan, for instance, consider whether to go nuclear as well. North Korea claims nuclear plant progress Pyongyang says it has made rapid advances in building a light-water reactor and enriching uranium * Share 45 * * * inShare10 Email * Associated Press in Seoul * guardian. co. uk, Wednesday 30 November 2011 07. 38 GMT Pyongyang says it is making rapid progress on work to enrich uranium and build a light-water nuclear power plant Link to this video North Korea says it is making rapid progress on work to enrich uranium and build a light-water nuclear power plant, increasing worries that the country is developing another way to make atomic weapons. Pyongyang's foreign ministry said in a statement that the construction of an experimental light-water reactor and low enriched uranium were â€Å"progressing apaceâ₠¬ .It added that North Korea had a sovereign right to the peaceful use of nuclear energy and that â€Å"neither concession nor compromise should be allowed†. Concerns about North Korea's atomic capability took on renewed urgency in November 2010 when the country disclosed a uranium enrichment facility that could give it a second route to manufacture nuclear weapons, in addition to its existing plutonium-based programme. North Korea has been building a light-water reactor at its main Yongbyon nuclear complex since last year. Such a reactor is ostensibly for civilian energy purposes, but it would give the North a reason to enrich uranium.At low levels, uranium can be used in power reactors, but at higher levels it can be used in nuclear bombs. Earlier this month, North Korean state media said â€Å"the day is near at hand† when the reactor will come into operation. Washington has concerns about reported progress on the reactor construction, saying it would violate UN se curity council resolutions. The US secretary of state, Hillary Clinton, speaking to reporters on Wednesday at an international aid forum in the South Korean port city of Busan, did not address the North's statement on uranium.She called the US-South Korean alliance strong and mentioned the recent first anniversary of North Korea's artillery attack on a frontline South Korean island that killed four. â€Å"Let me reaffirm that the United States stands with our ally, and we look to North Korea to take concrete steps that promote peace and stability and denuclearisation,† Clinton said. Five countries, including the US, have been in on-again, off-again talks with North Korea to provide Pyongyang with aid in exchange for disarmament. North Korea pulled out of nuclear disarmament talks in early 2009 in protest at international condemnation of ts prohibited long-range rocket test. In recent months North Korea has repeatedly expressed its willingness to rejoin the talks, and tensions between the Koreas have eased. Diplomats from the Koreas and the UShave had separate nuclear talks, and cultural and religious visits by South Koreans to the North have resumed. South Korean and US officials, however, have demanded that Pyongyang halt its uranium-enrichment programme, freeze nuclear and missile tests and allow international inspectors back into the country before resuming negotiations.The North Korean statement on Wednesday accused the U S and its allies of â€Å"groundlessly† taking issue with the North's peaceful nuclear activities. They are â€Å"deliberately laying a stumbling block in the way of settling the nuclear issue on the Korean peninsula through dialogue and negotiations†, the statement said. Kim Yong-hyun, a professor at Dongguk University in Seoul, said the North's statement appeared aimed at applying pressure on Washington and the international community to rejoin the nuclear disarmament talks quickly. â€Å"North Korea is expected to step up its rhetoric,† he said.History of Nuclear proliferation The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that the cold war deterrent relationship between just the United States and Soviet Union was fragile. Having more nuclear nuclear-weapon states would reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, or from escalation in tensions, nuclear conflict. The NPT process was launched by Frank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958.It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the first State to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of the Cold War and of South African apartheid. In 1992 China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so. In 1995 the treaty was extended indefinitely. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998 the only remaining non-nuclear-weapons st ate which had not signed was Cuba, which joined NPT (and the Treaty of Tlatelolco NWFZ) in 2002. Several NPT signatories have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs.South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, allegedly with the assistance of Israel in the 1970s, and may have conducted a nuclear test in the Indian Ocean in 1979, but has since renounced its nuclear program and signed the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nuclear arsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty. Several former Soviet Republics, Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, destroyed or transferred to Russia the nuclear weapons they inherited from the Soviet Union.The former Soviet republics joined NPT by 1994. Successor states from the breakups of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia also joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to sign the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to sig n in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries in Compact of Free Association with the USA joined NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu. Major South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998.Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The tiny European states of Monaco and Andorra joined in 1995-6. Also signing in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993. See also: North Korea and weapons of mass destruction, 2006 North Korean nuclear test,  and Six-party talks North Korea ratified the treaty on December 12, 1985, but gave notice of withdrawal from the treaty on January 10, 2003 following U. S. allegations that it had started an illegal enriched uranium weapons program, and the U.S. subsequently stopping fuel oil shipments under the Agreed Framework[52] which had resolved plutonium weapons issues in 1994. [53] The withdrawal became effective April 10, 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty. [54] North Korea had once before announced withdrawal, on March 12, 1993, but suspended that notice before it came into effect. [55] On February 10, 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks hosted by China to find a diplomatic solution to the issue. We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK [Democratic People's Republic of Korea],† a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue. [56] Six-party talks resumed in July 2005. On September 19, 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors.The difficult issue of the supply of light water reactors to replace North Korea's indigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions. [57] On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT. [58] On October 2, 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test â€Å"in the future†, although it did not state when. 59] On Monday, October 9, 2006 at 01:35:28 (UTC) the United States Geological Survey detected a magnitude 4. 3 seismic event 70  km (43  mi) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test. [60] The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completed a successful underground test of a nuclear fission device. In 2007, reports from Washingt on suggested that the 2002 CIA reports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence. 61][62][63][64] On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations—which some critics worry could have been planted in order to justify the United States giving up trying to verify the dismantlement of Pyongyang's uranium program in the face of North Korean intransigence—there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok Ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that the A.Q. Khan proliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U. S. officials to the effect that evidenc e obtained in dismantling Libya’s WMD programs points toward North Korea as the source for Libya's uranium hexafluoride (UF6) — which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment. [65] The history of nuclear weapons chronicles the development of nuclear weapons.Nuclear weapons possess enormous destructive potential derived from nuclear fission or nuclear fusion reactions. Starting with scientific breakthroughs of the 1930s made by the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom during World War II in what was called the Manhattan Project to counter the assumed Nazi German atomic bomb project. In August 1945 two were dropped on Japan ending the Pacific War. An international team was dispatched to help work on the project.The Soviet Union started development shortly thereafter with their own atomic bomb project, and not long after that both countries developed even more powerful fusion weapons called â€Å"hydrogen bombs. † There have been (at least) four major false alarms, the most recent in 1995, that resulted in the activation of either the US's or Russia's nuclear attack early warning protocols. [1] North Korea Main article: Ryanggang explosion On September 9, 2004 it was reported by South Korean media that there had been a large explosion at the Chinese/North Korean border.This explosion left a crater visible by satellite and precipitated a large (2 mile diameter) mushroom cloud. The United States and South Korea quickly downplayed this, explaining it away as a forest fire that had nothing to do with the DPRK's nuclear weapons program. List of most powerful nuclear tests The following incomplete list contains nuclear tests conducted with a yield of over 10 Mt TNT. Date| Yield| Test mode| Country| Test Site| Remarks| October 30, 1961| 50 Mt| air-drop| Soviet Union| Novaya Zemlya| Tsar Bomba| December 24, 1962| 24. Mt| air-drop| Soviet Union| Novaya Zemlya| Tes t 219| August 5, 1961| 21. 1 Mt| air-drop| Soviet Union| Novaya Zemlya| | September 25, 1962| 19. 1 Mt| air-drop| Soviet Union| Novaya Zemlya| | February 28, 1954| 15 Mt| ground| USA| Bikini Atoll| Castle Bravo| May 5, 1954| 13. 5 Mt| sea surface| USA| Bikini Atoll| Castle Yankee| October 23, 1961| 12. 5 Mt| air-drop| Soviet Union| Novaya Zemlya| | March 26, 1954| 11 Mt| sea surface| USA| Bikini Atoll| Castle Romeo| November 1, 1952| 10. 4 Mt| ground| USA| Eniwetok| Ivy Mike| September 27, 1962| 10 Mt| air-drop| SovietUnion| Novaya Zemlya| | Background Korea has been a divided country since 1945, when it was liberated from the defeated Japan after World War II. The Korean War was fought from June 25, 1950, until an Armistice Agreement was signed on July 27, 1953. As part of the Armistice, both sides, including U. S. forces, conduct military patrols within the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). [citation needed] In September 1956 the U. S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Radford told the U. S. Department of State that the U. S. ilitary intention was to introduce atomic weapons into Korea. From January 1957 the U. S. National Security Council considered, on President Eisenhower's instruction, and then agreed this. However, paragraph 13(d) of the Korean Armistice Agreement mandated that both sides should not introduce new types of weapons into Korea, so preventing the introduction of nuclear weapons and missiles. The U. S. decided to unilaterally abrogate paragraph 13(d), breaking the Armistice Agreement, despite concerns by United Nations allies. 8][9] At a June 21, 1957, meeting of the Military Armistice Commission the U. S. informed the North Korean representatives that the U. N. Command no longer considered itself bound by paragraph 13(d) of the armistice. [10] In August 1957 NSC 5702/2[11] permitting the deployment of nuclear weapons in Korea was approved. [8] In January 1958 nuclear armed Honest John missiles and 280mm atomic cannons were deploy ed to South Korea,[12] a year later adding nuclear armed Matador cruise missiles with the range to reach China and the Soviet Union. 8][13] North Korea denounced the abrogation of paragraph 13(d) as an attempt to wreck the armistice agreement and turn Korea into a U. S. atomic warfare zone. At the U. N. General Assembly in November 1957 the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia condemned the decision of the United Nations Command to introduce nuclear weapons into Korea. [9] North Korea responded militarily by digging massive underground fortifications resistant to nuclear attack, and forward deployment of its conventional forces so that the use of nuclear weapons against it would endanger South Korean and U.S. forces as well. In 1963 North Korea asked the Soviet Union for help in developing nuclear weapons, but was refused. However, instead the Soviet Union agreed to help North Korea develop a peaceful nuclear energy program, including the training of nuclear scientists. China later, afte r its nuclear tests, similarly rejected North Korean requests for help with developing nuclear weapons. [8] Tensions between North and South have run high on numerous occasions since 1953. The deployment of the U. S.Army's Second Infantry Division on the Korean peninsula and the American military presence at the DMZ are publicly regarded by North Korea as an occupying army. In several areas, North Korean and American/South Korean forces operate in extreme proximity to the border, adding to tension. This tension has led to numerous clashes, including the Axe Murder Incident of 1976. In the early 1960s security concerns in the region and an apparent Soviet dismissal of these concerns hastened the DPRK's efforts to acquire the technology to produce nuclear weapons.In the wake of the student-led April 19 movement in 1960 that overthrew the South Korean president Rhee Syngman and the May 16, 1961, military coup d'etat that brought General Park Chung-hee to power in the south, North Korea sought a mutual defense treaty with the Soviet Union and China. Soviet leaders reportedly did not even consider such a pact necessary, despite the military posture of the anti-communist Park regime, as long as the Soviets improved relations with the United States. 14] Perhaps the two most important factors in North Korea's attempts to obtain nuclear weapons and become militarily self-reliant were the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 and the prospect of a US–Japan–ROK alliance following the 1965 establishment of diplomatic relations between the ROK and Japan. Kim Il-sung reportedly did not trust that the Soviets would live up to the conditions of the mutual defense pact and guarantee North Korea's security since they betrayed Castro by withdrawing nuclear missiles in an effort to improve relations with the United States.As a North Korean official explained to Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin in 1965, â€Å"the Korean leaders were distrustful of the CPSU and the Sovie t government, they could not count on that the Soviet government would keep the obligations related to the defense of Korea it assumed in the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, Kim Il-sung said, and therefore they were compelled to keep an army of 700,000 and a police force of 200,000. In explaining the cause of such mistrust, the official claimed that â€Å"the Soviet Union had betrayed Cuba at the time of the Caribbean crisis. â€Å"[15] However, as recently declassified Russian, Hungarian, and East German materials confirm, no communist governments were willing to share the technology with the North Koreans, out of fear that they would share the technology with China. [16] With the collapse of the Soviet Union, North Korean leaders recognized the need for a new security relationship with a major power since Pyongyang could not afford to maintain its military posture.North Korean leaders therefore sought to forge a new relationship with the United States, t he only power strong enough to step into the vacuum left by the collapse of the Soviet Union. From the early 1990s, throughout the first nuclear crisis, North Korea sought a non-aggression pact with the United States. The U. S. rejected North Korean calls for bilateral talks concerning a non-aggression pact, and stated that only six-party talks that also include the People's Republic of China, Russia, Japan, and South Korea are acceptable.The American stance was that North Korea had violated prior bilateral agreements, thus such forums lacked accountability. Conversely, North Korea refused to speak in the context of six-party talks, stating that it would only accept bilateral talks with the United States. This led to a diplomatic stalemate. On October 9, 2006, the North Korean government issued an announcement that it had successfully conducted a nuclear test for the first time. Both the United States Geological Survey and Japanese seismological authorities detected an earthquake wi th a preliminary estimated magnitude of 4. in North Korea, corroborating some aspects of the North Korean claims. [4] On November 19, 2006, North Korea's Minju Joson newspaper accused South Korea of building up arms in order to attack the country, claiming that â€Å"the South Korean military is openly clamoring that the development and introduction of new weapons are to target the North. † North Korea accused South Korea of conspiring with the United States to attack it, an accusation made frequently by the North and routinely denied by the United States. 17] The United Nations Security Council condemned the test in Resolution 1874. On May 25, 2009, North Korea conducted a second test of a nuclear weapon at the same location as the original test (not confirmed). The test weapon was of the same magnitude as the atomic bombs dropped on Japan in the 2nd World War, (confirmed South Korea and Russia). At the same time of the test North Korea tested two short range missiles (repor ted a South Korean News Network YTN – not officially confirmed). In July 2011, Abdul Qadeer Khan, the key figure in Pakistan's nuclear weapons evelopment, allegedly claimed that North Korea had gained access to Pakistan's nuclear technology in the late 1990s by paying bribes to Pakistan's senior military officials, a claim Pakistan's senior officials disputed. Khan stated that he had personally helped transfer $3 million in gratuities to senior Pakistan's military officers, though he neither provided any proofs to his claims. [18] Chronology of events Main article: Timeline of North Korea nuclear program [edit] Plutonium | This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2009)| MWe experimental reactor at Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center North Korea has had two operating reactors, both located at the Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. The older reactor is a Russian supplied IRT-2000 research reactor completed in 1967. [19] Uranium irradi ated in this reactor was used in North Korea's first plutonium separation experiments in 1975. [20] Nevertheless, the primary purpose of the reactor is not to produce plutonium and North Korea has had trouble acquiring enough fuel for constant operation. The U. S.Department of Energy estimated that this reactor could have been used to produce up to 1–2 kg of plutonium, thoug