Discuss the view that the influence of religion on UK society is declining

The UK is lucky to have such a vibrant, diverse and cultured population from migrants that have entered our small islands from the past few thousand years. However each time they make Britain there home, they bring there religion. This gives rise to the many religions and there denominations that have a presence. But what is a religion? According to the Penguin Dictionary of Sociology it is â€Å"A set of cultural ideas, symbols, and practices that focus on the meaning of life and the nature of the unknown. † Secularisation had been happening for long time before Nietzsche proclaimed, â€Å"God is Dead† and is a far more complex process than just a drop in church attendance. Marxists believe that religion is form of social control on the proletariat by the bourgeoisie. He saw religion as the opium of the masses, teaching them acceptance which was reinforced by hymns like ‘All things bright and beautiful' which had verses akin to â€Å"The rich man in his castle, the poor man at his gate, God made them, high or lowly, and ordered their estate. † aided there exploitation by teaching them to accept there place in society because it was God wished. When Marx wrote this, churches had a high monopoly on truth so people would be more inclined to believe it. Looking at statistics of ex and current communist countries it is clear that secularisation is very high with the majority of Britain from Chinese decent claiming they have no religion, it is also known that countries that follow a Marxist, however stringently, doctrine that government officials must have no religion, this is very widely enforced within the Peoples Republic of China's administration but not as obligatory within the soviets of the USSR. With only one class there should be no reason for a religion to control society, however when countries became communist the did not all suddenly drop there views and become atheists, even if these values were taught at school, they were still taught in the home as primary socialisation always comes before secondary such as the school. The media openly ridicules religion by broadcasting comedies such as Father Ted and The Vicar of Dibley which portray very un orthodox Ministers and there they very un orthodox parishioners. But the media does not stop there it regularly comments on the flaws in religion through various mediums such as articles printed about the bonuses of secularisation and TV programs calling for religions to be abolished in the bid for world peace. However many of the Abrahamic religions forgot the second commandment â€Å"Though shall not worship false idols† but would God really smite the celebrities that use there fame to help highlight charitable work and those less fortunate than ourselves? However jealous a god he is, does he approve of celebrities such as The Pope or Grand Ayatollah? Even with there religious leadership they still fit the job description of a celebrity. Religions are often accused of being behind the times on items seen as very taboo yet have always been there, especially gay rights and abortion. Many religions see all human life as sacred and that abortion is an act of killing one of gods children so a sin, they also conform to functionalist view of homogonous, heterosexual, monogamous marriage been the only appropriate view on raising children. Within the past hundred years many laws have been passed that work towards an egalitarian society in which no person is superior or inferior to another such as gay rights, abortion rights and gender equality, which have been advocated for as long as Plato in his â€Å"The Republic† in which he sees men and woman indifferent albeit for childbirth and strength, to which he argues that some woman are stronger than some men. Moreover, some religious organisations have moved slightly with times, notably the Anglican faith which no allows gay and female Vicars, abortion in certain circumstances as well as divorce and remarriage. So as many equality principles have been oppressed by religion and are only recently winning it over, only one has been supported which is race equality, which was lead and fronted by one the most famous men in the world, a Methodist minister, Dr Martin Luther King. But to counter that the Dutch Reform Church openly supported Apartheid in South Africa, as well as many Far Right Political Groups mainly National Socialism Groups such as Hitler's Administration but also the BNP and NF groups which solely believe in Aryan Protestants to be the superior race, a dumbfounded patriarchal view that contradicts many statements within the bible including when Jesus Christ died on the Cross for our sins he removed all barriers including that of gender, race, and nationality. This is as said by the apostle Paul â€Å"There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus. If you belong to Christ then you are†¦ heirs according to the promise† (Galatians 3:28-29). Weber first introduced his theory of rationalization in his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, He predicts a decline in religion due to industrial advancement, plurality of religions and a rise in science and technology to answer questions that gave rational answers juxtaposed to religions ambiguous statement of it was Gods will. He looks at the Protestant denomination of ‘Calvinism' who believed in predestination and worked hard to beat their anxiety on whether they would be accepted into heaven. Eventually this evolved from a monopoly on truth to a monopoly of industry with many Calvinites becoming successful capitalistic businesspeople, for which Weber argued was inevitable. A rise in religious pluralism also adds to secularisation as individual religions are loosing their monopoly on truth as they are co-habiting and recognising other religions. Many large religious buildings now have faith rooms in which all religions are welcome. Also some Christian denominations meet and work together as Christians this is called Ecumenicalism. Within the past 250 years scientific advancement has gone from virtually nothing to a vital part our lifes today, religion has caught along on this bandwagon as well, but to only a certain extent. Darwin's theory of evolution is still questioned by some many religious individuals however these are mainly creationists. Weber suggested that eventually the mystical ideas would be succumbed by scientific ones. Durkheim (1965) suggests that religion was about celebrating the rules of your society and making the citizens keep to those rules. Yet, he argues, that as a society becomes more complex religion struggles to bind individuals due to industrialization and social fragmentation that regulate religion into a corner of where it becomes one of many beliefs and fails to unify members of society. Secularists and Antidisestablishmentarians have fought along side the broad left and broad right respectively, but hardly any battles have been as severe as the Spanish civil war (1936 – 1939) The Republicans were secularists and some of the more radical groups within in them such as the Stalinists NKVD committed terrible atrocities against the catholic church in Spain such as massacring clergy and destroying churches and monasteries. While the Nationalists were led by the infamous General Francisco Franco and had largely fascist yet catholic views and ties. They suppressed the terrorist secularist activities by executing teachers that promoted the removal of the church from education. Clear Statistics prove a decline in church attendance (All Protestant and Roman Catholic) from 30% of the population in 1900 to 12% in 1990, Hamilton (? ) Table 1. However a Social Attitudes Survey (1992) cited in Haralambous et al (2000) table 7. 19 pg 479 states that 75% of people believe in at some point God with or without scepticism, while the remaining 25% either stated they were Atheists, no answer or that they did not if there was a God and believed there was no way to find out. As 75% of people still believe in God at some point, this adds to the point that people may not be attending churches but still are retaining faith and does indicate a rise in Atheism. Davie calls this â€Å"believing without belonging†. Returning back to the Penguins Dictionary of Sociology's definition of religion in no point of the description does it state that one has to attend a specific place of worship to practice there religion. This adds to the point that people have not stopped believing in god but merely openly practicing in public, this could be that a conventional church does not fit in with there views of a religion or their lifestyles. In America Evangelical Christians have used the TV to their advantage and started to broadcast live sermons, this is taking the idea of songs of praise to a new level and with channels emerging such as GOD channel, religious sermons can make it into our homes – if we choose. Furthermore, Christian Church attendance was only mentioned above so what would be held for other religions and the attendance at there place of worship. Other data suggests that Christianity is just for Christmas According to UK Census Data (2001) 71. 6% claim to be Christian, 2. 7% to be Muslim, 1. 0% to be Hindu, 0. 6% to be Sikh, 0. 5% to be Jewish, 0. 3% to Buddhist and 23. 2% either have no religion or did not state one. However, comparing this with data from Social Trends 30 (2000) cited in Moore (2001) pg 417 suggest that while Christianity may be on the decrease other religions are not. Islam in the UK had increased 380% from 130,000 individuals in 1970 to 495,000 individuals. As well the amount of people stating their religion as Sikhism increased 250% from 1970 to 1990. Interestingly, participants of other non-Christian religious institutions had increased 231% over the twenty-year period, these could be institutions that conform to the description of a religion but are either world rejecting or world affirming. World rejecting religions promise savoir on judgement day and normally have very tight, strict rules and regulations placed upon their members, and most of all see the world as a bad place in which will not make it into heaven. World affirming religions on the other hand are too promised savour but do not have as many tight restrictions on its members but maybe one or two, such as no sex before marriage or no drinking alcohol and most importantly do not see the world as a bad place. There are many methodical issues raised when researching any religion topic, let alone secularisation. There are many points to include when research is undertaken for instance the reliability of the data, would a different research get the same results or if a different sample of participants and method of data collection was used. Is their a true representative sample, this would be important as Britain is a highly religiously diverse country and a poor sample could obscure the results. How valid is the data actually gained; is it what the researcher aimed to find in their question or is it irrelevant due to an ambiguous question. Religion is a very private matter and a researcher must question there self on how far they may be intruding on a participant's life or institution. Finally a researcher must be sensitive to the data and interaction with participants, as beliefs are very sacred to a person they must be fully aware of their customs so that they do not offend. Secondary sources must be looked at with great care and what they say applied today for example a woman practicing herbal medicine would not be seen as anything bizarre in today's world but 400 years ago burnt at the stake for witchcraft. In conclusion the debate of secularisation has rage on with the sociological world for many year, yet a unified decision has yet too be and probably won't be made. Bellah (1967) and Luckman (1996) both argue that religion is not in decline but is merely changing form. They say that the public side of religion may be in decline but the private side of religion and personal belief is not. Berger (1967) on the other hand says that religion is loosing its traditional place within society saying how the growth of science and technology has questioned it, and suggests that religion, as a way of life is no longer in capacity to do so. Wilson (1966) described secularisation as â€Å"the process whereby religious thinking, practices and institutions lose their social significance† But even though there is a drop in church attendance, society is not loosing its belief in a religion. Many religions have religious buildings to worship their god, yet with some religions it is not compulsory to attend them regularly, such as Islam and Judaism – perhaps Christianity has to learn from its religious ‘relatives'. On the contrary Voas (2005) gives evidence for a significant rise in church attendance around Christmas time, which can rise by 330% in some diocese in Anglican Britain. Perhaps this suggests that Anglicans choose to go to church only at special religious occasions. Many sociologists looking at secularisation focus on Britain and do to take into account other countries that have taken a huge rise of fundamentalism such as the USA and Iran, which are closely linked too politics. Fundamentalists, such as the Christian Coalition, helped shape the policies of the Reagan and Bush administrations, Bruce (1995). Finally Stark and Bainbridge (1990) suggest that secularisation and strong religious belief alternate in a cyclical pattern. From this I agree with Bellah and Luckman that religion is not in decline but merely changing the form in which it presents its self within society, as there is more corroboration between researchers that suggest people have not lost faith.

DFA’s investment portfolio Essay

Identify the sources of value DFA is providing its investors DFA creates different value to its customers. For Registered Investment Advisor, the value was the educative access to top researchers who were developing innovative theories and empirical analyses. For high-net-worth individuals, it is low management fee as the services are provided through RIA. For other investors, the value is high performance of portfolio it manages. The sources of values DFA managed to create come from: – Close relationship with prominent academics, who also have stake in DFA. The academic research has played crucial role in the performance of DFA’s investment portfolio and brought substantial return to its customers over a long period of time. – Reputation of the DFA in small cap market help the firm reduce transaction cost, pick and choose the right stock to invest, contributing to positive return for its customers. 8. What are some of the trading costs associated with small, value stocks? How does DFA manage these potential trading frictions? Given the fact that small and value stocks have lower liquidity compared to large and growth stock, transaction of small and value stock is more difficult. There are some trading costs associated with them: – When investment fund wants to buy small and value stocks in open market, their price will go up very quickly. This increase in price will negatively affect the next purchase of the same stock of the investment fund. DFA instead of going to the market and bid for stock, it absorbs the selling demand from the others. By taking a large part of stock, it can even obtain a discount on the stock purchase. – Once the investment fund owns an amount of a certain stock, the future sales of stock to the market may pose some pressure on the price of stock. DFA when buying stock from seller would try to make sure that it take the whole position of th e seller so that it avoids the scenario when the seller sells the other part to the market and the price of stock goes down immediately after DFA buys it. – Same applied when the fund tries to sell its stock. If investment fund sells a large block of stock, the price of stock will be pushed down. To avoid this transaction cost DFA normally offers small amounts of stock to the market each day. It takes more time to sell out but the price of stock will be maintained. 12. Likewise, throughout the 1990s, growth stocks outperformed value stocks. Hence, should DFA reconsider its current strategy? What if growth continues to outperform value over the next five years. Would your answer change?  Again, how would you explain the poor performance of the fund to your clients? Although the growth stock outperformed value stocks in 1990s thanks to the high-tech boom, DFA should not reconsider its current strategy because of the following reasons: -Looking at a long period of time (from 1926 to 2004), despite some up and down, value stock still outperform growth stock (Tim’s calculation) -DFA’s philosophy of investment has been based upon market efficient. And according to market efficient theories, the higher return of growth stock given the lower level of risk compared to value stock will go away as people start to chase growth stock. Switching to growth stock will not help DFA to make sustainable return. Even though the growth stock continues to outperform for the next five years, our answer would not change. The growth stock cannot outperform the value stock for too long because it has lower level of risk. Value stock will soon bounce back in terms of return soon. 14. What future strategies would you recommend DFA pursue? Make a specific recommendation, and justify it. Should they abandon/modify/maintain their current size and value strategies? Should they explore other interesting anomalies and adopt similar strategies?

Marijuana should not be legalized Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Marijuana should not be legalized - Essay Example It has been reported that the increasing number of children are experimenting with the recreational drugs such as Marijuana. Further, studies on the arrested criminal serving their sentences in different jails suggested that they were involved in using drugs like Marijuana at least once in a week before they were arrested. (DuPont, 2010). These statistics suggest that the society as a whole can actually bear a lot of cost for the unrestricted and unrestrained used of drugs like Marijuana and therefore should not be legalized. This argumentative essay will present a case for not legalizing the Marijuana and will present different reasons along with practical examples as to how the legalization of Marijuana can actually be detrimental to the society and the individuals. Marijuana should not be legalized Probably one of the biggest arguments against the legalization of the marijuana is based upon the principles of morality. The use of the drugs in general is considered as immoral in any given society due to the overall impact of the same on the society. ... Religion therefore in this sense suggests that the use of drugs generally should not be allowed because it will diminish the humanistic characteristics of the individuals. Historically the use of drugs such as Marijuana remained banned due to the adverse social impacts of their use on the individuals. Since the use of the Marijuana often result into the intoxication therefore can seriously cause the personal injury. It is also important to note that the marijuana is considered as the stepping stone drug which can lead to the use of other drugs such as cocaine and other more severe drugs. This is because of the fact that the Marijuana is often considered as easy to obtain and use and the relative effects of the drug can often lead to the so called experimentation with other hard and soft drugs. Such tendencies therefore can further led to the excessive use of other drugs and therefore the overall cost of rehabilitation of all those engaged into the use of harder drugs can be high. (Me sserli, 2010) It is also important that the Marijuana is considered as a socially addictive drug therefore and has really capability to induce abuse. Such capacity of the drug therefore can further led to the domestic as well as the social disturbance giving the fact that the drug is of addictive nature. This is also because of the fact that due to overall nature of Marijuana people who actually use this drug become what is called potheads and Marijuana start to dominate most parts of their lives. Such domination therefore creates further social alienation as well as the marginalization of the drug addicts. The use of Marijuana is therefore not only

4 QUESTIONS Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

4 QUESTIONS - Assignment Example A patent plays a major role in terms of preventing other individuals from selling a given product for a given period. In this case, it is true that patents insulate inventors from rivalry, enabling them to charge higher prices and realize considerable economic profits. In the case of the pharmaceutical company, its revenues and profits will drop considerably once it loses patent protection. Without patent protection, it will be possible for other firms in the marketplace to introduce a similar product in the market, which will rival with the one of the pharmaceutical company. In this case, the company will start realizing reduced economic profits and eventually start counting losses. (Alden, 2014) To mitigate from this situation, it is appropriate for the pharmaceutical company to understand that loss of patents leads to generic competition, which influences future performance of the company. As such, one of the major ways in which the company can mitigate the losses incurred is by remaining dedicated to research and development (R&D) to help it introduce other patents that will raise its competitiveness, productivity, and profitability in the marketplace (Alden, 2014). Price elasticity of demand refers to an economics measure that is used in showing the responsiveness of demand to changes in prices of goods and services when other factors are held constant. It reflects a percentage change in the overall quantity demanded based on a one percent price change holding other factors constant. For the restaurant situated close to the college, the price elasticity of demand for local residents is lower compared to that of college students who are in session for about nine months every year. In this case, for the firm to raise its revenue, it needs to devise pricing strategies, which will help it raise revenues regardless of whether the price elasticity of demand for college students is higher (This Matter, 2015). In this case, it is

The Role of Computer Technology in the human race Research Paper

The Role of Computer Technology in the human race - Research Paper Example This ability to compute large amounts of data within very less time provided the basis of conducting analysis and comprehensive overall views of scenarios. Thus, computing assisted man immensely and was able to put to maximum use all the sources that were at hand to him. Literally speaking, Computer technology refers to the process of planning, constructing, designing and implementing a computer system. Since the basic meaning of ‘compute’ is calculate thus computing something was calculating it The History of computer technology can roughly be traced back to the year 1940 in which the first programmable computers were built for the very first time. The first computer ever built was the size of a typical modern bedroom and consumed power equivalent to that consumed by a couple hundred modern day computers. To give you the perception of the potential this computer was, think about the first generation IPhone. Yes, in fact the Phone was a significantly more powerful machin e than the first â€Å"supercomputer†. Back In those days, institutions had to dedicate a special room just for the computer lab server. The Temperature had to be on point ever single minute of the day or else the computer lab would become over heated. 1971 saw the advent of the microprocessor. The size of computers reduced considerably with this invention. The first Intel microprocessor had the name Intel 4004 associated with it. The advent of microprocessors then paved a very rapid way to the Personal Computers, Laptops and then eventually the present day tablets. Computer technology has excelled manifolds in the past seventy years; think about all the different features available on a modern day computer; you can email, draw, chat instantly with other people around the world, watch movies, download and listen to music, create your own music, build your own computer, design blueprints of the worlds most sophisticated buildings, you can do practically anything you desire on a modern day computer. Technology incorporated in present day computer CPU’s, memory, hard drive space, etc. is multiplying year by year without us even acknowledging how it is benefiting us. Engineers are constantly striving to figure out how to improve battery life, power consumption, and even most importantly, cost. For example, the Apple Ipad is the most user friendly tablet in the market and also the most advance when it comes to the components inside, yet the cost is only a few hundred dollars. Since its initiation the technology of computing devices has been of assistance and productivity for man. Specifically it may be said that this technology accompanies unimaginable horizons of positive aspects within it most of which are yet to be discovered and explored. Everywhere around us we see innumerable advantages of computer technology. May it be education, health or everyday use computer technology has been beneficial for man by extensive means. Though the advent of comp uter technology in the present times has primarily been extremely beneficial for mankind it does accompany certain drawbacks as well. These drawbacks may become potential hazards if not addressed with timely and appropriate measures. This perfectly comes in line with that technology behaves like a ‘double edged sword’ (Kurzweil) and, C. P. Snow, who is a renowned English physicist and novelist, said that, â€Å"Technology†¦is a queer thing. It brings you great gifts with one hand, and it stabs you in

Psychological Testing - Wechsler intelligence scale for children Essay

Psychological Testing - Wechsler intelligence scale for children - Essay Example By detecting low IQ scores in children, an intervention can be put in place to help the child learn. High IQ scores can help place an advance child in a higher learning environment. Normal IQ scores can make sure a child is on their level. Identifying IQ’s in children are important due to these reasons. One intelligence test for children today is the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). The WISC was created by David Wechsler (Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2005, p. 7). The WISC was first introduced in 1974, then revised accordingly until today’s version the WISC-IV came into use (Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2005, p. 10). The WISC produces an IQ number for children ages six to sixteen. Unlike most IQ tests, the WISC does not require a student to read or write. The oral side of the test lets educators determine a true IQ, not just test ability. Although the WISC can be used for various reasons, the WISC is intended to be as an IQ evaluation of children. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children is the test that will be critically reviewed as a standardized psychometric test for this paper. The WISC is an intelligence psychometric test. This paper will discuss the evolution of the WISC into the WISC-IV. The WISC will be evaluated as a tool for determining learning disabilities, accessing a child’s true ability, tracking a child’s development, and as a primary IQ test. In the Literature Review, the WISC’s advantages and disadvantages will be given. Then my personal opinion will be given in the Discussion section. Finally a brief Conclusion will wrap up the paper as a whole. The WISC-IV is used today. This IQ test is split into two sections, a verbal scale and a performance scale (Carey, n.d.). The test is split into different subtests, but the two main sections are the verbal and performance scales. On the verbal sections of the test, a verbal response from the child is needed. On the

Teenagers and Parasocial Relationships Research Paper

Teenagers and Parasocial Relationships - Research Paper Example According to the report findings,  parasocial relationships refer to one-sided relationships in which one party knows more about the other party. For example, relationships between the general population and famous people such as members of parliament, celebrities, and news anchors. In parasocial scenarios, strong bonds are formed although one party is completely unaware of the other party. For example in the case of media, viewers may have strong bonds with media personalities yet the media personalities do not really have a social relationship with the viewers. In such a scenario the viewer feels that the media personalities are directly addressing them. Knowledge of parasocial relationships has come in handy to explain relationships between media users and media personalities. In this essay, I will describe the theory/concept of parasocial relationships and then illustrate it with an example from a perspective of media influence on teenagers.   This essay highlights that  parasocial relationships are generally based on illusions and influence is expected to develop with time since they heavily rely on recurrence. Parasocial relationships are considered to be one-sided because they only have effects on one party. For example, parasocial relationships do not have an influence on media personalities but rather on viewers only. However, the concept of parasocial relationships does not only apply to media communication but also in other aspects of life. For example, long before the exploration of the subject by Horton and Wohl, there existed parasocial relationships such as those between people and the gods. Little was known about the gods yet they had a great influence on people’s lives and shaped the day to day activities.

Developing Digital Marketing Strategies for Assignment

Developing Digital Marketing Strategies for - Assignment Example It also focuses on the logo of MLC, the golden egg. Fonterra, however, also posts documentaries, such as â€Å"Food For Thought.† This is a documentary that shows facts and trends on food and lifestyles. The company also provides a four-part documentary on Fonterra. These documentaries provide further information on the nature and extent of Fonterras business. Fonterras Ski Activ can target women and men aged 20 to 50 by showcasing two models in their YouTube ads. One female model eats Ski Activ for fourteen days and has less digestive problems and gets slimmer than the other who does not eat Ski Activ. There should be a separate commercial for male models and one for those in their twenties and another for those in their fifties. This will show the audience that Ski Activ has a broader target market niche. Furthermore, the YouTube ads should have links directing to more information about Ski Activ and what kinds of problems it can resolve. This will entice women to consider testing Ski Activ, especially since it has a money-back guarantee. This money-back guarantee should also be highlighted more in YouTube ads, with emphasis on the idea that consumers have nothing to lose, except extra weight and digestive discomfort. MLC can produce more specified YouTube videos for its target market of 35 and above, males and females, with incomes above $65,000 per year, by focusing on how easy it is to contact MLC financial advisers online or through the phone. The excitement levels for insurance plans that MLC offers can be heightened by using a mix of logical and emotional appeals. Logical appeals will emphasize the importance of insurance to having a more secure future, especially during these economically chaotic times, while the emotional appeals will focus on the happiness and comfort that MLCs wealth management expertise can offer.

Corporate Social Responsibility Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Corporate Social Responsibility - Case Study Example Or the company may choose to externalize CSR operations by assisting environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and concentrating on their business activities without actively getting involved with CSR issues. The nature of CSR followed by us at Nestle is not too difficult to analyze because we are very clear about our fundamentals. CSR is so integrated in our system that it has become a part and parcel of our business. We are proud of our integration with CSR. Different experts on management have different views about CSR. This difficulty is exasperating because it does not allow CSR to be clearly defined. However, the management at Nestle are agreed on the fundamentals of CSR. We have a mutually advantageous situation with CSR. That is, the benefits of CSR to Nestle are in direct proportion to the benefits that CSR receives from us. Notwithstanding the fact that we have such advantageous link with CRS, there are areas that we could explore for further benefits. Hitherto, we have not made any research on the actual amount of benefits that we could source from CSR. In this paper, we will lay an outline of the areas where we believe there are plenty of businesses that we can generate through CSR (Chen, Derek; 2009). It is not be possible to measure the social responsibilities. ... CSR is so integrated in our system that it has become a part and parcel of our business. We are proud of our integration with CSR. Different experts on management have different views about CSR. This difficulty is exasperating because it does not allow CSR to be clearly defined. However, the management at Nestle are agreed on the fundamentals of CSR. We have a mutually advantageous situation with CSR. That is, the benefits of CSR to Nestle are in direct proportion to the benefits that CSR receives from us. Notwithstanding the fact that we have such advantageous link with CRS, there are areas that we could explore for further benefits. Hitherto, we have not made any research on the actual amount of benefits that we could source from CSR. In this paper, we will lay an outline of the areas where we believe there are plenty of businesses that we can generate through CSR (Chen, Derek; 2009). How is social responsibility measurable It is not be possible to measure the social responsibilities. Social responsibilities are immense. As a company, we can do our bit to contribute to social responsibilities. We can do this in two ways. We can either get directly involved with social projects. Or we could associate with any government or non-governmental organization who is involved in social projects. Although it is difficult to measure CSR, we have been following CSR principles since long years now. The quality and quantity of our involvement in sustainable environment has been quite substantial. As we grow, the quantum of our contributions to CSR is only bound to grow. "Nestl's environmental stewardship is guided by three principles: - Our responsibility towards society, present and future; - Our desire to delight consumers; - Our

Social influence for social psychology class Research Paper

Social influence for social psychology class - Research Paper Example The example given in David G. Myer’s Exploring Social Psychology allows for a deeper analysis of these changes by illustrating how they might really occur. The example provided a few instances of conformity. By definition, conformity is â€Å"Changing your attitudes, beliefs, thoughts, or behaviors in order to be more consistent with others,† (Psychology Dictionary (C) at AllPsych Online). For example, the way Juan dresses is an example of conformity. He dresses in â€Å"designer jeans and tight-fitting t-shirts he and his friends are fond of wearing.† This shows that he has changed his behavior, the way he dresses, in order to be better accepted by his friends, who dress in the same way. This also illustrates conformity as a circular action. Juan dresses in designer jeans and tight-fitting t-shirts in order to be consistent with his friends, who wear these things to be consistent with each other. If one of them were to start wearing something different, there is a possibility another will follow to achieve the same consistency, therefore eventually changing what the entire group as a whole wears. Evaluation apprehension is also demonstrated in the example text. By definition, evaluation apprehension is when â€Å"individuals working in the presence of others experience a general concern for how these others are evaluating them, and that this apprehension facilitates their performance on simple, well-learned tasks,† (Psychology Glossary: Evaluation Apprehension Theory). In the example text, we see this when Holly, who has been practicing playing darts, notices that her throws are inaccurate when Juan is watching her. Holly has become preoccupied with how Juan is evaluating her ability to play, which causes her to play poorly. If Holly wasn’t experiencing the â€Å"pressure† of Juan watching her, there is a good possibility that she would be throwing her darts more accurately. This serves as a good example because many o f us have experienced similar situations where the idea that someone is watching us enters our conscious thought, which in turn effects our performance at the task at hand. Earlier in the text, Phillip could have also been experiencing the effects of evaluation apprehension. He knew after a certain point the previous semester that Juan would be borrowing his notes. The idea that not only his own grade, but Juan’s as well, were dependent on these notes may have caused him to take great caution in taking good notes. It can also be considered that the desire to not feel such pressure was the reason why Phillip stood up to Juan, refusing to give him the notes all semester. There are many examples throughout the text of normative social influence. Normative social influence is defined as â€Å"the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with but not necessarily private accep tance of the group's beliefs and behaviors,† (Psychology Glossary: Normative Social Influence). Since conformity is a component of normative social influence, this idea applies again to the way Juan dresses. He is influenced by those around him to dress the way he does. He knows that by dressing like his friends, he is gaining acceptance. With this as another thing in common, he is assuring that he is liked by his friends. We can also return to the conversation between Juan and Phillip. Phillip may be aware of the fact that Juan only talks to

The Right to Vote Essay Example for Free

The Right to Vote Essay In this research paper, I intend to analyze the historical events and public activities that created a ground for politically unprivileged portion of 18th and 19th century United States society to express their dissatisfaction and the desire to have a right to vote. I will study how relevant historical events took place in different states or towns, how did the municipal and state authorities respond to them, how the press illustrated these events and what level of impact the events had on the future of the democratization of the voting process in the United States. As a result of this study, I aim to explain how politically discriminated portions of the society did obtain a right to vote through the democratic process and what factors assisted to this process. My working hypothesis would argue that obtaining a right to vote in the United States society was the product of constitutional conventions, rapid increase in the number of population that resulted in majority of them having an economic participation but no political participation and the formation of political parties that competed for votes. My research will focus on books that give the account of historic events that unfolded in 18th and 19th century regarding the democratization of the right to vote, such as Alexander Keyssar’s work on the right to vote – the contested history of democracy in United States, and newspaper accounts that illustrated or described the relevant events, informed the society on what different intellectuals think about the issue and raised the mass awareness regarding the problem that should be resolved. For example, Albion Tourgee begins his article â€Å"The Right to Vote† by bringing different questions, such as what is the right to vote, how to regulate it, limits of state and national authority, in what manner it should be asserted and to whom does it attach. Also, the monthly law reported on 1853 describes the constitutional convention that was held in the state of Massachusetts, the outcome of the event and how the event would impact the process of democratization of political power. Such historical articles or reports illustrate that the majority of inhabitants or citizens had a desire to know their rights better  and participate in the political process of the town, state or the country, thus impact the political process. Alexander Keyssar in his book â€Å"The right to vote† brings important historical events, such as the formation of constitutional conventions, increase in the number of population of states, physical act of voting, conduct of elections, voting requirements, property and tax requirements, differences in the state and local eligibility and their role in the democratization of the voting process in the United States. For instance, Alexander Keyssar mentions that between 1790 and the 1850s, every state held at least one constitutional convention, and more than a few held several. The issues addressed by these conventions were many, but almost invariably a key concern was the distribution of power among the increasingly diverse residents of each state. While examining the above mentioned historical and other relevant data, I will be studying the level of impact of each event. I will examine how each event that are mentioned in the Alexander Keyssar works or in the works of other scholars and which are illustrated by journals and newspapers allowed the politically discriminated portion of the society raise their voices and concerns and down the road allowed them to gain a political power and obtain a right to vote trough the process of democratization. By conducting the analysis, I aim to rate the level of importance of each historical event or public activity and analyze the role of each stakeholder, such as inhabitants, citizens, aliens, municipal and state authorities, federal government and perhaps women and slaves. Besides relying on books for relevant historical events, I will also look on how the magazines, journals and newspapers of that time reported the events, and to what level they were engaged in the process of the democratization of the right to vote in the United States. While exploring these questions, I will be relying and examining the work of wide range of scholars who have attempted to analyze the major historical events and public activities that resulted in or prepared a ground for the democratization of the right to vote in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Alexander Keyssar, for instance, in his works has focused on relevant historic events and analyzed the role of stakeholders, such as inhabitants or citizens, political parties, local and state authorities, and the federal government. He also attempts to analyze the role the public events, such as constitutional conventions and the role of arguments of delegates. In his work on the right to vote the contested history of democracy in United States, Alexander Keyssar has a section where he intends to analyze different ideas and arguments to figure out which factors played a crucial role in balancing the political power, including amendments to or changing constitutions. In should be mentioned that in fact Alexander Keyssar conducts a detailed analysis of different factors, such as he analyzed the role political parties in the process of democratization of the right to vote. My next level of analysis would include the assessment of relevant newspapers, journals and other printed materials of 18th and 19th century. I intend to find a connection between the press and stakeholders, such as activists, municipal and state authorities, federal government and political parties and see to what level did this relation impact the material that were published in the press. [ 1 ]. Tourgee, Albion W., Forum (1886-1930); Mar 1890; American Periodicals, pg. 78 [ 2 ]. The Monthly Law Reporter (1848-1866); Sep 1853; 6, 5; American Periodicals pg. 241 [ 3 ]. Alexander Keyssar, The Right to vote the contested history of democracy in United States pg. 28-29 [ 4 ]. Alexander Keyssar, The Right to vote the contested history of democracy in United States pg. 34-35 [ 5 ]. Alexander Keyssar, The Right to vote the contested history of democracy in United States pg. 32-33

An Analysis Of Pulling Levers Policing

An Analysis Of Pulling Levers Policing Many jurisdictions have been experimenting with comparatively new problem-oriented policing models to halt gun and gang violence among chronic young offenders. Originating in Boston, one approach is the focused deterrence strategy, also known as pulling levers. Its intentions are to affect the demeanor and surroundings of the serious offenders that are known as being at the center of the gun and gang problems. The strategy seeks permanent elimination of the drug dealing with corresponding reduction in crime and improvement in the quality of life within the neighborhood.( Corsaro et al., Oct. 2009, p. 2) The pulling levers plan of attack tries to deter the violence by making potential offenders believe that stern and swift consequences would follow such behavior. A major part of the pulling levers strategy is the delivery of a straightforward message to a small group of offenders, letting them know what behavior will not be tolerated and the consequences of that behavior. There are so me key elements to the implementation of the pulling levers strategy. In addition, the pulling levers strategy has several advantages and disadvantages. When implementing the pulling levers strategy, several key elements have to be in place in order for it to be successful. These key elements give the pulling levers strategy an advantage over traditional policing. The first element is enlisting the help and support of the community. Residents have to feel that the actions of the officers are legitimate and that nonviolent youth are not being put at risk of being caught up in the justice system. The gathering of a multiagency enforcement group with the power to make decisions is the second element. The group should include police, probation, and parole, as well as state and federal prosecutors. Most often offenders are involved in a wide range of other crimes, which leaves them open for law enforcement to pull every lever of criminal justice intervention to crack down. There is an enormous sanctioning power that the enforcement community could bring to bear against particular gangs and gang members.(Kennedy, Spring 1997, p. 461) The t hird element is having an effective way of communicating with offenders. The multiagency group needs to show offenders the cause and effect of the pulling levers intervention. A direct message that violence will not be tolerated and every legal action will be taken to prevent such violence. The message can be delivered in a variety of ways, such as talking directly to the violent offenders on the streets or holding a public forum with a group of invited offenders. The multiagency group assumes that the message will be reverberated to other offenders through an informal communication network. Another key element is getting researchers involved in the process. Researchers can provide the interagency enforcement group with reliable data and performance evaluations of strategys progress. Research has shown that the pulling levers focused deterrence strategy to be useful in decreasing gun violence among young chronic offenders. The most known is the Boston Gun Project/Operation Ceasefire intervention. It was attributable to a significant decrease in homicides among youth, and nonfatal gun violence. Replications of the Boston Gun Project/Operation Ceasefire strategy have also shown reductions in gun violence. There are two more very important advantages to implementing the pulling levers focused deterrence strategy. First, each gain of control applied increases the effectiveness of the pulling levers strategy. As the baseline level of violence begins to diminish, the multiagency working groups response to new violence problems should increase. Second, it divides the general load of these offenses. For example, instead of patrol officers taking on the general load of deterring violent offenses the responsibility is shared with personnel from other agencies, such as probation, parole, and social service. A challenge or disadvantage that the pulling levers strategy faces is its relatively small scientific evidence. It has been demonstrated in several replications that the pulling levers strategy works when dealing with young serious violent offenders, but it has yet to be implemented for other problems. Another problem is establishing trust with the community. One of the main steps toward implementing the pulling levers strategy is having the trust of the community. Distrust corrodes the creative process that criminal justice agencies and community-based organizations are necessarily engaged in.(as cited in Weisburd and Braga, 2007, p. 184) Without community trust and support the program will surely fail. Establishing trust can be very difficult in communities where racial tensions between the residents and the police are present. For example, in Boston a new mechanism of police accountability was necessary in order to create trust that that new programs would be beneficial to the com munity (as cited by Weisburd and Braga, 2007, p. 172) due to the perception of racism that existed. The community has to be able to hold law enforcement accountable for their actions and have to know that any actions taken by law enforcement will keep them safe and not cause further detriment to the community. Safety is only one dimension on which citizens evaluate police actions(Fagan, Summer-Autumn 2002, p. 139). Also, lever-pulling is resource draining. There are many time-consuming aspects, including organizing and attending the meetings, ensuring compliance with the conditions of probation, and responding to a violent act.(Chermack, Jan. 2008, p. 49) In the end the pulling levers focused deterrence strategy depends on two pertinent components: how well the consequences are customized to the targeted offenses, and if the promises made to would-be offenders are kept. Unfulfilled promises and hollow threats from law enforcement can only lead to more problems with the offenders. In order to establish trust with the community and instill fear in the offenders all promises and threats should be carried out. Also, without the political support of the community, the police cannot pursue an innovative enforcement strategy that targets truly dangerous youth at the heart of urban youth violence problems. (as cited in Weisburd and Braga, 2007, p. 185) 2. How would you conduct a study to test whether pulling levers policing works? You must use qualitative, quantitative, or a mixed methods design. Detail the steps from start to finish including the measures you wish to test. The goal of conducting a study to measure the pulling levers strategy is to help facilitate better decisions by law enforcement agencies. The study should help answer two questions: Was there a decrease in the problem and if so was it the result of the response imposed? By answering these questions law enforcement can decide whether to end the pulling levers strategy and focus resources elsewhere or to apply the response to other problems. The type of design used in this study is an experimental quantitative design . By using this type of study, changes can be evaluated mathematically before and after the implementation of the pulling levers strategy. For example, the study being conducted wants to know if there was a decrease in youth homicides after the implementation of the pulling levers strategy. First, the study would take place in a large metropolitan city where youth homicides are above the national average, like Chicago, Illinois. The first set on analyses would be gathered from secondary information sources for demographic, policing, economic, and homicide patterns over a span of 2000-2009. This will be the main database used for the analysis. Official police data would be obtained from the Chicago Police Departments statistical reports. Economical and demographic data would be gathered from the 2000 U.S. Census. Economic data would also be gathered from the U. S Bureau of Labor Statistics. From the information gathered the officers will found out who are the target offenders and areas with the highest youth homicide rates would be the communities used in the study. Much crime-violent, drug, property, and domestic-is concentrated in certain neighborhoods, particularly poor minority neighborhoods.(Kennedy, 1997, p. 459) Two teams of officers would be organized to patrol the beat in these two communities to implement the pulling levers strategy. This would take place over the span of three years. The officers using the pulling levers strategy would deliver a specific deterrence message to the youth offenders. In the case of the Boston Gun Project/Operation Ceasefire the message was delivered in formal meetings with gang members; through individual police and probation contacts with gang members; through meetings with inmates of secure juvenile facilities in the city; and through gang outreach workers.(Braga et al., 2001, p.5) Also, a multiagency law enforcement team would convene several meetings with serious gang offenders where the team would communicate its new standards for conduct, indicating that violence will not be tolerated. Each offender has certain background characteristics.that interact with dynamic characteristics(DeMichele and Paparozzi, Oct. 2008, p. 70). So when there is a violation of these rules, the multiagency law enforcement team would respond by using all available sanctions or levers to punish the offender. Those in which these sanctions were imposed on would become the source of discussion in subsequent meetings with potential would-be offenders. In terms of analysis, one of the most widely adopted statistical procedures in econometrics and criminal justice used to determine the impact of programs and public policies is time series analysis.(Corsaro et al., Oct. 2009, p. 20) During the three years, analysis of the strategys impact would consist of a time-series design. Every month the strategy would be reassessed. A count of youth homicides would be conducted to see if the program is working properly. Also there would be a monthly count of calls for shots fired. Once the three-year implementation of the program has concluded the data for the youth homicides and calls for shots fired would be compared to the data before program implementation. Key outcome variables would be the monthly number of youth homicide victims 21 or younger in the two targeted areas, and a monthly count of shots-fired citizen calls citywide. Also, youth homicide trends in would be compared with the youth homicide trends in other large U.S. cities. The implementation of the program would start in April, 2010 and end April, 2013. If the program was implemented successfully the time series analyses should show a reduction in monthly number of youth homicides from pretest to posttest. There should also be a significant decrease in calls for shots fired. With the successful implementation of the pulling levers strategy there should be an overall decrease in criminal activities with the communities and the city. An important question for policymakers to consider when deciding to implement a lever-pulling strategy is whether a working group is willing to commit the time and resources for effective follow-up.(Chermack, Jan. 2008, p. 152) Communities that suffer loss and injury from gun violence are most often those that are racially segregated and socially disadvantaged. Policing in this social context requires sensitivity to questions of legitimacy and procedural fairness.(Fagan, Autumn-Summer 2002, p. 147)

Human sexual reproduction

Human sexual reproduction Introduction In human sexual reproduction, the males always produce sperms and the females produce ovum. Generally, the sperms and the ova are what are referred to as the gametes. These gametes contain chromosomes which are coiled threads of DNA and protein found in the nucleus of the cells. A chromosome is that which carries the hereditary information of an individual and constitutes of densely packed coiled up Chromatin. Sperm and Babys Sex The pairing of chromosomes is responsible for the different sexes evident in the human and widely on most of the animal species. Genetically sperms contain X and Y chromosomes while the ovum contains the X chromosomes alone. An individual with both the Y and X chromosome is referred to as the male while an individual with only the chromosome is the female. During normal fertilization a male always contributes one chromosome while the female contributes the other chromosome. Together they will form an individual. If the male contributes a Y chromosome then the resulting sex will be that of a male since the final set will be XY. However, if the male contributes an X chromosome the resulting set will be a XX and hence a female. A female in all the cases produces an X chromosome. This means the sperm is of importance since it will contribute the all important Y chromosome to male the child male. Possible Complicating Factors Although meiosis is a precise mechanism that separates the two sex chromosomes of a diploid cell into a single chromosome of haploid gamete cells, errors sometimes do take place. Nondisjuction is one of the commonest errors. Nondisjuction is the failure of chromosomes to separate properly during one of the stages of meiosis. This Nondisjuction error can produce gametes that contain either two sex chromosomes or no sex chromosome. Lack of sex chromosomes or having two sex chromosomes is a direct contrast to the normal condition of one sex chromosome. When either of these gametes joins with a normal gamete during fertilization, its result is a person with an abnormal count of sex chromosomes. This leads to a number of disorders. Most common disorders are turner syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome. Victims of turner syndrome are female in appearance but their female genital organs do not develop at puberty. They are also sterile. The turner syndrome is abbreviated as 45X or 45X0, where 0 denotes the absence of second sex chromosomes. People with Klinefelter syndrome are male in appearance and they too, are unable to sire children. Klinefelter is abbreviated as 47XXY. All babies must have x chromosomes for it contains a number of genes that are vital for normal human development. Other disorders, though not very common, which are as a result of nondisjunction are; the Down syndrome, Edward syndrome, Patau syndrome, triple x syndrome and XYY syndrome. Triple X syndrome is as a result of an extra x chromosome in female where as the XYY syndrome is as a result of an extra y chromosome in male. Victims of Edward syndrome usually experience abnormal development of body organs such as kidneys, intestines and the heart . Conclusion An X chromosome is absolutely essential for survival. Sex seems to be determined by the presence or absence of a y chromosome and not by the number of X. chromosomes. An example is the evidence of reported cases of people who have genotypes 48XXXY and 49XXXXY and are male in appearance. The Y chromosome contains a gene that switches on the male pattern of growth during embryological development. If this gene is absent, the embryo follows a female pattern of growth. Reference Komisaruk, B. R. (1986). Reproduction: Behavioral and Neuroendoctrine Behavior. New York Academy of Sciences, Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W and Feldman, R. D. (2001). Human Development (8th Ed). McGraw-Hill Education

All Quiet On The Western Front :: essays research papers

Decline of Morality   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The novel All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque shows that war destroys more than just the physical level; the decline of morality has taken place through various circumstances in the novel such as: then incident where Paul Baumer is forced to kill a soldier in a shell hole, when Paul lies to his mother and the mother of his dead friend Kemmerich and when Paul and Kat must beat a recruit unconscious to stop him from leaving the trench; these incidents can be compared to events in the 1990’s such as: rise in the abortion rate, Columbine High School shootings, and the incident between President Clinton and Monica Lewinski.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Chapter 7 Paul is granted a leave from his duties for about a month and in this time he plans on going home and visiting his family. When he arrives his mother asks him questions about how he is and about the war. More specifically she asks, â€Å"Was it very bad out there, Paul?† He thinks to himself how that is a bad question and that nobody realizes how bad the soldiers actually have so he is forced to lie. He says â€Å"No, Mother, not so very. There are always a lot of us together so it isn’t so bad.† Here the author proves that the war forces some to lie to their parents whom they have always been honest with and this demonstrates the decline of family life that the war causes. Later in the chapter he goes to visit the mother of his dead friend, Kemmerich. While there he tells her that he died instantly and she doesn’t believe him, â€Å"You lie. I know better. I have felt his anguish-tell the truth, I want to know it, I must know it.†(159) He again lies to her, â€Å"No, I was beside him. He died at once† (159). But yet she tells him, â€Å"I know you want to comfort me, but don’t you see, you torment me far more than if you told me the truth? I cannot bear the uncertainty† (159). He sticks to his story telling her, â€Å"He died immediately. He felt absolutely nothing at all. His face was quite calm† (160). Again this incident shows that war has a major affect on family life, if he is able to lie to his mother about the war easily, that makes it easier for him to lie to Mrs. Kemmerich about her son. These incidents can be most closely related to the confrontation involving the President

Bridging the Gap Essay -- Education

Bridging the Gaps John W. Gardner said, â€Å"Much education today is monumentally ineffective. All too often we are giving young people cut flowers when we should be teaching them to grow their own plants.† Education today is very ineffective. It is in an in between phase of the ways of old and a time of complete reform. The main issue is that people often lose sight of why the education system should even be reformed. It shouldn’t be reformed because â€Å"that’s what everyone else is doing.† It needs to be reformed to bridge the gap for the students who have a different learning style. It should be reformed to expand knowledge for students. Education reform can have good and bad effects. Because the education system is very complex, educators are being faced with changes and they must decide what is best for students. Educators have been faced with so many changes over time. From a one room schoolhouse to three story buildings. Schools have gone from strictly religious to it being illegal for teachers to bring it up. Not even twenty years ago, many students such as farmers’ kids would drop out of school after eighth grade to work on the farm. School was enforced and college was not as highly encouraged. Now, most people go to college. Education has had many reforms. Some have happened over time and some just quickly took place, but all of them have had a huge effect on students. Through all of the changes of education, one has slowly started to take place all over the world. The education system was created with a three month break in the summer. Slowly, the idea of year round school has been planted in education. Students fear it, but should they? The idea of year round school is not what everyone thinks it is. Most year round sch... ...earning." Project Based Learning. Web. Mar. 2012. . Quillen, Ian. "Educational Technology Rides Stimulus Funding Wave." Education Week. 09 Feb 2011: 15. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 25 Mar 2012. Sadowski, Michael. "Time and Learning." Harvard Education Letter. March/April 1998: 4-6. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 25 Mar 2012. Solomon, Gwen. "Project-Based Learning: A Primer." TechLearning (2003). Web. Mar. 2012. . Sovern, Jeff. "Laptops in Class: How Distracting Are They?." Christian Science Monitor. 06 Jun 2011: n.p. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 25 Mar 2012. Thomas, Ph.D, John W. "A Review of Research on Project-Based Learning." The Journal of Learning Sciences (2000): 367-42. Web. Mar. 2012. .

Russian Bureaucracy Essay -- Russian Government, Politics

The growth of the Russian bureaucracy from the Imperial to Soviet era is overwhelming. According to Alekinskii, in 1897, 435,000 civilians worked for the public bureaucratic sector. This means for every 292 members of the populous there would be one public servant plied for representation (Alekinskii, 178). By 1897, the bureaucracy in Russia was no older than sixty years. Prior to the 1830s state bureaucrats did not truly exist; shortly thereafter, seniority dictated which workers would progress upwards in the public institutions in which he or she worked (John Le Dunne). This could be interpreted as the first sign of the development of bureaucracy in Imperial Russia. Russian bureaucracy, at least in the Soviet and Imperial sense, does not mimic the traditionally accepted Weberian notion of bureaucracy and bureaucratic development. Some scholars feel Russia could be portrayed as the true birthplace of a pure bureaucratic system. In other countries, such as the United States or Norwa y, the bureaucracy gained power slowly in an already stable political and social environment. This is not the case in Russia. According to Hollander, a major difference in the Imperial and Soviet bureaucracies from prescribed Western norms surrounds politicization (Hollander, 305). The bureaucracy developed through class oppression and political upheaval over centuries. It can be said that a truly stable political and social environment in Russia is only about twenty years old; in spite of this, the Russian bureaucracy existed and thrived for centuries prior to the social awakening. How did Russia often express itself during times of censorship and control? Literature. Despite being written during the times of Tsars and Imperialists, works like Nik... ...overeignty.† The American Journal of International Law. Vol. 43: No. 1 (January, 1949). 21-36. Hollander, Paul. â€Å"Observations on Bureaucracy, Totalitarianism, and the Comparative Study of Communism.† Slavic Review. Vol. 26: No. 2 (June, 1967). 302-307. Lincoln, W. Bruce. The Great Reforms: Autocracy, Bureaucracy, and the Politics of Change in Imperial Russia. (DeKalb: N. Illinois University Press, 1990). Pinter, Walter M., â€Å"The Social Characteristics of the Early 19th Century Russian Bureaucracy.† Slavic Review. Vol. 29: No. 3 (September, 1970). Pipes, Richard. Ryavec, Karl W. Russian Bureaucracy: Power and Pathology. (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2003). Ulam, Adam B. The Russian Political System. (New York: Random House Inc., 1975). Wade, Rex A. The Russian Revolution, 1917. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

How to Be a Good Muslim

Garrett Waidelich October 8, 2012 Islamic Civilization Dr. McGrath How to be a Good Muslim In the Quran and the Hadith of Bukhari there are many descriptions of what it takes to be a good Muslim. God gives very specific details to Muhammad about what Muslims need to do and what they can’t do if they want to get to paradise. The five pillars of Islam created a base for Muslims to follow in order to be a good Muslim. The five pillars are that there is no god but God, to offer prayer, to give charity, perform the hajj and to fast during Ramadan (HB 1: 7).The Muslims that follow the five pillars and follow Muhammad’s teachings will reach paradise. The first pillar is to accept that God is the only god and that he is the only one worthy of being worshiped (HB 1: 7, 25, 50, 63, 2: 594, Q 2: 176). This first pillar is very important in Islam because Islam is based around the idea of submitting to God and being God’s slave. God is the most powerful being that there is an d he created the Earth and all its inhabitants (Q 2: 163). God also hears and knows everything, including people’s thoughts and intentions (Q 2: 180).This pillar is so important because God is all powerful, righteous, and merciful. Disobeying this pillar is a terrible deed and Muhammad also said that the worst sin is to worship another god (Q 2: 190, HB 3: 821). The second pillar is to offer prayer perfectly five times a day. There are a lot of rules about how to pray and things that must be done for prayer to count as a good deed. Because God knows and hears all, a Muslim must be completely focused on God while they are praying and not be distracted by other things (HB 2: 307, 4: 504).Muslims are supposed to pray five times a day at specified times (HB 3: 115). Prayer is also better when it is done consistently instead of praying for a long time and then not praying again until the next week (Quran 23: 5, HB 1: 41). Muslims should not get drunk and especially should not pray while drunk (HB 1: 50). Cleanliness is also important when praying. It is good to clean your teeth before prayer and when women menstruate it is considered unclean and they should not pray (HB 2: 12, 1: 247, 1: 817, 3: 172, Quran 2: 222).Men are also not supposed to pray or be around women when the woman is menstruating (Quran 2: 222). Women were also told not to watch men pray because the sheets they wore were short and showed their private areas (HB 2: 306). Prayer is also considered better, 27 times better, when done in congregation than alone (HB 1: 618). Prayer also can reduce the bad deeds that a Muslim might commit, for example a man came to Muhammad and said he had kissed a woman unlawfully and Muhammad told him to pray and the prayer would remove the bad deed (HB 1: 504).Praying to please God and not to impress other people also will lead to all of your past sins to be forgiven (HB 1: 34). Charity is also a very important part of Islam. There are many different references to charity from Zakat, to the alms levy, to giving to the poor. It is considered a god deed to help the poor and it is required to give Zakat. Muhammad says that giving Zakat is one of the best deeds that a Muslim can do (HB 1: 7, 25, 50, 54, 502).Not only is paying Zakat a good deed but also giving to charity and helping the poor is a good deed (HB 1: 11, 27). There is a charity that can be given every day, called Sadaqa, and this charity consists of doing good deeds (4: 232). These good deeds count as the charity. Muhammad told a woman that giving the alms levy is especially important for women because a majority of the people in hell were women (HB 1: 301). Helping orphans, beggars, travelers, and anyone in need is considered a good deed (Quran 2: 215, 2: 177).Giving to help people in need has many benefits for Muslims. When a woman gives charity from her husband’s belongings without hurting his belongings, both the woman and her husband will be rewarded (HB 2: 518, 520, 5 21). While giving to charity is a good deed it is bad for someone to hoard their wealth and money for their personal benefit and can lead to punishment from God (HB 2: 513, 514, 515). If a person does keep all of his money instead of spending it in God’s cause, God will withhold his blessings from that person (HB 2: 513, 514, 515).Another form of charity is buying the freedom of a slave, or setting your own slave free. Freeing a slave can remove the worst of bad deeds including killing someone or breaking your oath (Quran 4: 92, 5: 88). It is good to pay for the rest of the freedom of a slave if you own a part of the slave and partially free him (HB 3: 672). Performing the Hajj at least one time during a Muslims life is another pillar of Islam. Hajj is the pilgrimage from Medina to Mecca that occurs every year in the last month of the Islamic calendar.Hajj is to be made during the specified months, and while on the hajj a man should not have sexual intercourse, should not swe ar, or get into disputes while on the pilgrimage (2: 197). If someone is ill or too weak to perform hajj, someone else can make the pilgrimage on their behalf, with the ill person receiving the reward (HB 2: 589). Muhammad also tells women that instead of participating in Jihad, a women’s Jihad is performing the hajj (HB 4: 43, 127). The final pillar is fasting. Fasting is best when it is done three days a month and during the whole month of Ramadan (HB 2: 274).When someone is ill or on a journey, they can fast the same number of days later when they return or when they are healthy again (Quran 2: 183). It is also possible to substitute feeding a poor person instead of fasting if a person is unable to fast, but fasting is the better of the two (Quran 2: 183). During fasting, you are allowed to eat and have sexual relations at night when the sun is down (HB 3: 139). Women that are menstruating when they fast do not get the rewards because they are considered unclean (HB 3: 172 ).The five pillars are the basis for Muslim actions that will get them into paradise, but there are also a few other things that make a Muslim good. Jihad is another very important thing for a Muslim to participate in and there are many benefits to Jihad. The Quran states that everyone has an obligation to take part in Jihad, but they should never be the aggressor (Quran 2: 216, 2: 190). Fighting for God’s cause is basically fighting to defend Islam and to make it superior to all other beliefs (Quran 1: 125, 22: 78). Jihad has many rewards for Muslims that participate in it.Some of these rewards are booty that is taken if you survive and for the martyr a place in heaven right beneath God (HB 4: 48). If a Muslim did not want to fight, Muhammad said that to equal the good deeds of Jihad that person would have to fast and pray during the entire time the soldiers were on Jihad (HB 4: 44). This would be impossible and enforces the idea that Muslims that participate in Jihad are co nsidered better than those that don’t, unless someone is injured and unable to (HB 4: 84). Women were not supposed to participate in Jihad but instead their Jihad was the hajj (HB 4: 127).Although women’s Jihad was hajj there are numerous stories of Aisha and other women helping the wounded and watering the soldiers during battles (HB 4: 130, 131, 132, 133, 134). Muslims are given very specific directions and helpful tips to be good Muslims. If Muslims accept and admit that God is the only God, pray, offer charity, make the pilgrimage, fast, and do other good deeds they will be considered good Muslims and will get into paradise on Judgment day. Doing good deeds also wipes away or cancels out bad deeds and will also help Muslims be better people and increase their chances of getting into paradise.

Literary Analysis †Mr Van Gogh Essay

Owen Marshall’s ‘Mr Van Gogh’ addresses the inevitable issue of marginalisation of an individual. Through language features he influences the reader to reflect and consider action of the attitudes towards the socially marginalised. The social rejection of an individual is described through the voice of the town bully, and the cowardly acts of the narrator. Set in a small town in New Zealand it serves as a microcosm of contemporary society. Marshall presents a parable to educate the reader so they understand that there is only inclusion when there is exclusion. Marshall aims to influence the reader to take action and act in ways that challenge the universal social norms. Through the voice of the town bully Marshall presents the issue of Frank’s rejection. Marshall achieves this by emphasising the mockery demonstrated toward Frank. In, ‘†¦ a local turn to entertain the visitors. â€Å"Was he any good though, this Van Gogh bugger? †Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, Marshall uses direct speech from Mr Souness to tease Frank about his fondness of Van Gogh. Vincent Van Gogh is Frank’s passion, he admires him like nobody else. The rhetorical question that Souness derides Frank with is appropriate because it shows the reader colloquialism that Souness uses whilst he talks down to Frank. Frank is used as entertainment for the townspeople who sadistically take pleasure by ridiculing Frank’s devotion toward Van Gogh. This arouses guilt in the reader because it relates to the broader social context, showing the truth about society; Marshall uses representative characters to show that society must have â€Å"outcasts†. The reader realises that you can either be part of society or have individuality. The isolation of Frank is further evident in, ‘†¦ old bugger is holding up the democratic wishes of the town’, this shows the parallel relationship between Van Gogh and Frank through Marshall creating repetition in diction through the repetition of, ‘bugger’. Marshall used an extended metaphor, which further developed the character of Frank by relating him to Van Gogh, who was also marginalised. Ironically by calling Frank, ‘Mr Van Gogh’, the community are isolating him, destining him to follow Van Gogh’s fate – a misjudged genius dying alone, unrecognised in his ifetime for his work. The exclusion that Marshall created through the voice of the town bully is additionally seen through the acts of the bystanders in the community. The marginalisation of Frank is reflected through the cowardly acts of the narrator. The townspeople have no interest in standing up for Frank; he stands up for himself. In, ‘Mr Van Gogh was stand ing before the laughter with his arms outstretched like a cross’, the simile accentuates to the reader that Frank is derided, the town bully and his accompanies laugh at the fight he reluctantly devotes himself to. The Biblical allusion emphasises the use of the simile by connecting Frank to Jesus; this shows that Frank and Jesus have a parallel relationship – Frank is being used as a sacrifice for the entertainment of the townspeople, sacrificing himself by standing up for his hero, Van Gogh. The community proceeds to be spectators even if they believe the ridiculing is wrong; they convince themselves that the discrimination is not their business, highlighted in, ‘I went away from the fence without watching anymore’. Pontius Pilate walked away, ‘washed his hands’ of responsibility of Jesus’s crucifixion; the narrator relates because he sees Frank being used as a human sacrifice, yet he turns his back and walks away – not wanting to be part of the taunting acts, and too fearful for his own self worth if he stood up for Frank. Marshall elaborates to the reader the unwillingness to risk ourselves for others is human behaviour; such as following in the role of others. The community mirrors Souness; whereas Frank chooses to create his own path. By destroying Frank’s house Marshall symbolises the destruction of Frank’s individuality. Marshall shows the community is unconsciously making efforts to destroy any forms of individuality. In, ‘It rose like a phoenix in its own flames, and he wasn’t part of it anymore†¦ the colour, and purpose, and vision of Mr Van Gogh had gone out of himself and was there on the walls about us†, the listing of abstract nouns accentuates to the reader creating a link between Frank and Van Gogh – they both dedicated their lives to their passion. The relation to the mythical creature, phoenix, certify the resurrection of Frank; his soul is carried through his work, his house. This Classical allusion is used to demonstrate to the reader the symbolic aspects of the house, such as Frank’s originality. The simile in, ‘the house collapsed like an old elephant in the drought surrounded by so many enemies’, compares the townsfolk to scavengers – they are seen as cowards, only attacking when their prey seems weak. Marshall uses this because elephants symbolise sensitivity; the relation to an ‘elephant in drought’ underlines the vulnerability of the house whilst Frank is not present to protect his individuality. The author positions the reader to feel sympathy and horror about the destruction of the house, and evokes the sense of powerlessness within the reader because the majority overwhelms the individual. Marshall portrays to the reader that group mentality of the majority attempts to overwhelm individuality. Due to the concept of binary construction, society is predicated on inclusion and exclusion; in order to achieve a sense of community, marginalisation is inevitable and universal. Marshall’s short story makes the reader reflect about the hypocritical ways in which society works. There will always be Van Gogh as long as there are those who express their individuality; there will always be forms of exclusion through inclusion. In, ‘†¦ Souness kept laughing, †¦ rubbed his knuckles into his left eye because of the dust’, the Biblical allusion refers to the Book of Luke through, ‘dust’, emphasising the message, ‘Why point at the speck in your brother’s eye, when there is a plank in your own? First remove the plank from your own eye†¦ ’. Hypocrisy is shown by the townspeople judging others on their personal values, when they themselves have them. Marshall has caused the reader to realise the hypocrisy in their lives, the reader follows in majorities’ lead of society. Marshall causes the reader consider action by changing the ways they think about social marginalisation. It is important for young people to read this story to raise awareness of the reality of society; the social marginalisation in the story is an example of what happens in reality. People are laughed at for being different, however, they should be laughing because society is all the same.

Jane Eyre: a Critical Analysis of Gender Relations in Victorian Literature

Jane Eyre: A Critical Analysis of Gender Relations in Victorian Literature Modern society tends to view the Victorian era as one of oppression and constraint, despite the social and cultural upheaval of the time. This contradiction refers, in large, to the constraints imposed on the female gender. Women in Victorian England were viewed as inferior to their male counterparts, and were allocated clearly defined roles within society. Their treatment is a subject that is explored and critiqued throughout the literature of the time, and subsequent analysis by literary commentators.As Maynard comments (1984); ‘Few observers of the Victorian Scene have failed to point out the unusual degree of sexual restraint imposed upon social life and published literature’. However, it is in the work of the Bronte sisters that one witnesses the most comprehensive, and sometimes startling account of the social and gender restraints of the time. This paper will concentrate on the novel Jane E yre, written by Charlotte Bronte, and published in 1847 under the pseudonym Currer Bell.The adoption of a male pseudonym in itself reflects an underlying social prejudice towards female novelists, as outlined by the author; ‘Averse to personal publicity, we veiled our own names under those of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell†¦ while we did not like to declare ourselves women†¦ we had a vague impression that authoresses are liable to be looked on with prejudice’ (Smith, 2000). This somewhat disturbing observation by the author sets the tone of the novel itself, and implies what it is exactly that set the Bronte sisters apart from their contemporaries; their ‘unfeminine’ style of writing.Jane Eyre is, in effect, a love story, and concentrates on the main character’s quest to find true love. It cannot be classed, however, as a solely romantic novel as the character’s quest for love involves a struggle for equal treatment, social acceptance , and value. In doing so, she questions and refuses to conform to an array of social norms associated with the era. Jane’s desire to be loved is evident in the opening stages of the story, in her conversation with Helen Burn’s; ‘if others don't love me I would rather die than live†¦I would willingly submit to have the bone of my arm broken, or to let a bull toss me, or to stand behind a kicking horse, and let it dash its hoof at my chest’ (Bronte, 1847). This somewhat distressing insight into the young Eyre’s mindset captures her quest for ‘true love’, as opposed to the loveless relationships and marriages associated with the time. This association is witnessed by Jane’s eventual husband, Mr Rochester, in his first marriage;   Ã¢â‚¬ËœBertha Antoinette Mason, she was wanted by my father for her fortune. I hardly spoke with her before the wedding. I lived with her for 4 years.Her temper ripened, her vices sprang up, violent and unchaste’ (Bronte, 1847). Rochester’s summary of the ‘marriage’ is a disturbing insight into the arranged, and socially acceptable, marriages of the time. Bronte sets her protagonist apart from her peers in her views of love, but further cements this difference in her continued criticism of the attitudes of the Victorian class. This is apparent in chapter 17 in particular, when she questions her growing feelings for Mr Rochester; ‘You have nothing to do with the master of Thornfield, further than to receive the salary he gives you for teaching his protege†¦. o don't make him the object of your fine feelings’. (Bronte, 1847) It becomes clear, however, that despite Jane’s attempts to restrain her emotions, she is fighting a losing battle and is becoming increasingly enraptured with Mr Rochester, reacting in a heated manner upon receipt of a letter from him; ‘And while she broke the seal and perused the document, I went on t aking my coffee†¦ Why my hand shook, and why I involuntarily spilt half the contents of my cup into my saucer, I did not choose to consider’ (Bronte, 1847).Jane’s employment as a governess by Mr Rochester further complicates her situation and her increasing love for her employer. Hedgecock summarises the role of the governess in Victorian society (2008): ‘in ordinary Victorian life, the governess is the genteel spinster, self-effacing, having no ambitions outside the home in which she is subjected to a life of dependency’. Eyre, however, was not willing to conform to ‘ordinary Victorian life’, nor was she willing to fit the mould of the unassuming governess.Eyre’s constant struggle with her feelings for Rochester is impacted throughout by the norms of society at the time, and her resilience to them. She is unwilling to marry Rochester while Bertha is still in the picture, as it would equate her to a mistress, a position that she wh olly disapproves of and one which Rochester wishes her to take: ‘As a married man you will shun me, keep out of my way: just now you have refused to kiss me’. (Bronte, 1847). Despite Eyre eventually marrying Rochester, when his wife has passed away, she refuses throughout to conform to and comply with the social etiquette of the time.Just like her creator, she is almost masculine throughout the novel, thus portrayed through her personal values and strength of character. It can be understood that Charlotte Bronte depicted herself through the life of Jane Eyre, and used her fictional character as one whom modelled and almost mimicked Bronte as a person. Eyre possessed the same strong drive in seeking equality and independence as a woman. Her refusal in accepting the conformities of the time mirrors Bronte.Bernstein (1997) sets the scene for those non-familiar with the Victorian era: ‘in the larger cultural context of Victorian England in which women are not accorded by law or by custom much opportunity to act on their own behalf’. This supports the motive behind Bronte and her actions. It portrays the gender roles, which strongly influenced people’s behaviour and identities. This ‘social rule’ fuelled women’s endurance of the condescending attitudes about a woman’s place, intelligence, and voice. Thus, in turn, Jane became subjected to an uphill battle to become independent and recognized for her personal qualities.Bronte attempts to illustrate how personal virtues are better indicators of character than class. The red-room mentioned in the novel is a metaphorical image for Jane’s entrapment in the life she is expected to lead. A life of entrapment from society, limiting her freedom due to her independent streak, race and foremost – gender. Eyre’s struggles in attempting to overcome the oppression are all of a display through the feminine movement, in which the Bronte sisters each p layed a significant role in setting off. Eyre displays characteristics of masculinity, such of which in Victorian era would only be confined to that of male prominence.The strong connection made between both author and character is evident to the reader. In conclusion, Jane Eyre captures the struggle and oppression faced by the women of Victorian Britain. Despite the eventual happy-ending to the novel, the lead character is forced to overcome strict social and gender restrictions in order to be with her true love. We see throughout the novel, however, that Eyre is an exceptional character at the time and represents only a small number of women who were quietly moving against society’s expectations of them.Charlotte, the eldest of the Bronte sisters, received reputably the most critical recognition with her creation, Jane Eyre. Overall, the three Bronte sisters are highly known in English literature for their historical prominence that made them significant to the era of the V ictorians. Their livelihood painted the path in which their work followed and their upbringing greatly influenced their beliefs and outlooks. The three sister’s strong and willing characteristics aided them in delivering what can be perceived as staples in literature, and for centuries become only stronger with growth and eminence.As Winnifrith (1988) stated; ‘the Brontes had the courage to break away from the almost universal belief that sinners merited eternal punishment’. This reflects upon their independence and strength in striving for their own beliefs and expressing their opinions. These opinions were of such strong stature, resulting in the power to in script their everlasting effect on the literature of the Victorian era and even on English literature as a whole. Bibliography Bernstein, Susan David. Confessional Subjects: Revelations of Gender and Power in Victorian Literature & Culture. USA: The University of North Carolina Press, 1997.Bronte, Charlotte . Jane Eyre. United Kingdom: Smith, Elder and Co, 1847. Hedgecock, Jennifer. The Femme Fatale in Victorian Literature: The Danger and the Sexual Threat. New York: Cambria Press, 2008. Maynard, John. Charlotte Bronte and Sexuality. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Smith, Margaret. The Letters of Charlotte Bronte: Volume II: 1848-1851, with a selection of letters by family and friends. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press, 2000. Winnifrith, Tom. The Brontes and their Background: Romance and Reality, Second Edition. London: The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1988.

Combating the Threat of Nuclear Terrorism

Statement at end of two-day summit in Seoul pledges strong action and closer co-operation against nuclear terrorism. | World leaders attending a summit in the South Korean capital Seoul have pledged strong action and closer co-operation to combat the threat of nuclear terrorism.In a statement issued at the end of the two-day 53-nation nuclear summit, the leaders reaffirmed â€Å"shared goals of nuclear disarmament, nuclear proliferation and peaceful uses of nuclear energy†. â€Å"Nuclear terrorism continues to be one of the most challenging threats to international security,† it said. â€Å"Defeating this threat requires strong national measures and international co-operation given its potential global, political, economic, social and psychological consequences. The statement welcomed â€Å"substantive progress† on national commitments made at the   first nuclear security summit in Washington in 2010. Action stressed Before the summit concluded, South Korean P resident Lee Myung-bak said nuclear terrorism remained a â€Å"grave threat†, while US President Barack Obama said action was important. Chinese President Hu Jintao urged the group to work together on the issue. â€Å"The planned missile launch North Korea recently announced would go against the international community's nuclear non-proliferation effort and violate UN Security Council resolutions. – Yoshihiko Noda, Japanese PM While the official agenda of the summit was to strengthen measures to track the movement of nuclear materials worldwide, much of the dialogue focussed on efforts to get North Korea to back off a planned rocket launch scheduled for next month and return to disarmament talks. North Korea announced earlier this month that it would send a satellite into space aboard a long-range rocket. Pyongyang has said the launch is part of its peaceful space programme and says a new southern flight path is meant to avoid other countries.Previous rockets have bee n fired over Japan. The secretive North was widely criticised on the sidelines of the meeting, including by main ally China, but host Seoul has explicitly stated Pyongyang's weapons of mass destruction programmes were off the table during the summit itself. Defiant North Korea On Tuesday, a North Korean foreign ministry spokesman said that the launch would go ahead as planned. North Korea †will never give up the launch of a satellite for peaceful purposes†', the spokesman said in a statement in the official KCNA news agency.A report by the KCNA also described the †weather satellite† Pyongyang planned to launch as useful for †the study of weather forecast needed for agriculture and other economic fields†. Yoshihiko Noda, the Japanese prime minister,  speaking at the summit, called on Pyongyang to cancel the rocket launch, saying that it would violate UN Security Council resolutions. Nuclear stockpiles| * Russia: 10,000 * US: 8,500 * France: 300 * China: 240 * UK: 225 * Pakistan: 90-110 * India: 80-100 * Israel: 80 * North Korea: fewer than 10Source: Federation of American Scientists| The planned missile launch North Korea recently announced would go against the international community's nuclear non-proliferation effort and violate UN Security Council resolutions,† Noda said. Obama had urged North Korean leaders to abandon their rocket plan or risk jeopardising their country's future and thwarting a recent US pledge of food aid in return for nuclear and missile test moratoria, considered a breakthrough after years of deadlock. On Monday while speaking at a university in Seoul, Obama said that he  was  pushing for â€Å"a world without nuclear weapons†.Iran's nuclear programme was also on the minds of the summit participants, as Obama met the leaders of Russia and China on the sidelines to work towards a resolution. Obama had said that the threat of nuclear weapons remained a potent challenge for the globe to confront, telling foreign leaders that â€Å"the security of the world depends on the actions that we take†. Neither Iran nor North Korea had participated in the summit. Asia-Pacific | | S Korean minister warns of energy crisis | |Economy minister Hong Suk-Woo says â€Å"unprecedented† power shortages possible after two nuclear reactors are shut down. Last Modified: 05 Nov 2012 09:01 inShare1EmailPrintShareFeedback| S Korea operates 23 nuclear power reactors which meet more than 35 per cent of the country's electricity needs [EPA]| A South Korean minister has sounded a warning  about  Ã¢â‚¬Å"unprecedented† power shortages after two nuclear reactors were shut down to replace components that had not been properly vetted. The two units at the Yeonggwang nuclear complex were shut down on Monday and may remain offline until early January. It's inevitable that we will experience unprecedented power shortage during the coming winter with the two reactors shut,† Hong Suk-Woo, the economy minister, said. However, he said the â€Å"non-core† components posed no safety threat and were unrelated to a string of systems malfunctions at reactors this year that triggered calls for a safety review. Last month, authorities temporarily shut down two 1,000-megawatt reactors at separate nuclear plants after system malfunctions which were also blamed for another reactor at Yeonggwang being tripped into automatic shutdown in July.Engineers will replace more than 5,000 fuses in the units shut down, cooling fans and other parts for which suppliers had provided bogus quality certificates. â€Å"Comprehensive safety check-ups are necessary at these two reactors where the uncertified parts were used extensively,† Hong said. South Korea operates 23 nuclear power reactors which meet more than 35 per cent of the country's electricity needs. It plans to build an additional 16 reactors by 2030. The government has  pledged to continue using nuclea r energy despite public concerns arising from last year's nuclear disaster in Japan.If the two Yeonggwang reactors are not brought back online as scheduled, Hong warned of a â€Å"dramatic† drop in national power reserves to 300,000 kilowatts in January, compared to the government target of 4. 5 million kilowatts. â€Å"Energy authorities are preparing a super-intense power supply emergency plan, which will be carried out in mid-November,† Hong said, without elaborating. All parts supplied for use in South Korea's nuclear plants require quality and safety warranties from one of 12 international organisations designated by Seoul.Eight suppliers cited by Hong faked 60 warranties covering nearly 7,700 items that had been provided at a cost of $750,000, Hong said. Of the total, more than 5,200 parts have been used in five reactors – 99 per cent of them in the two Yeonggwang units closed on Monday. Hong said prosecutors would investigate the suppliers as well as poss ible collusion by officials of the state-run Korea Hydro and Nuclear Power (KHNP). | Inside Story | | Is nuclear terrorism preventable? | |World leaders gather for their second summit to strengthen efforts in securing nuclear material around the world. | Around 50 world leaders have gathered in South Korea to discuss measures to fight the threat of nuclear terrorism, including the protection of nuclear materials and facilities, as well as the prevention of trafficking of nuclear materials. Barack Obama, the US president, used the opening day of the nuclear security summit to set out a series of wide-ranging goals on nuclear policy.He praised achievements made so far, and promised more would emerge from these discussions. â€Å"We have to question whether the rules we have today are adequate, and my view is that they're totally inadequate. There's no uniformity, no requirement to control materials a certain way. â€Å"Kenneth Luongo, Fissile Materials Working Group| The summit repr esents the half way point of a four-year process set out by Obama with the goal of locking down nuclear materials worldwide and preventing their use in a terrorist attack.But this year’s summit takes place against a backdrop of growing tensions over the nuclear standoff with Iran and concerns about North Korea's plans to launch a satellite next month – a launch that the US, South Korea and others believe is a missile test. So, how big a threat is nuclear terrorism? Who sets the criteria for acquiring nuclear weapons? Are there grounds for accusing Western governments of double standards? And can a problem of such magnitude be tackled by voluntary agreements made at the summit?Inside Story, with presenter Laura Kyle, discusses with Richard Burt, the chief US negotiator in the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty who is also the US chairman of Global Zero which seeks elimination of nuclear weapons; Mark Hibbs, a senior associate in the Nuclear Policy Program at Carnegie Endow ment for International Peace; and Riad Kah-waji with the Institute for Near East and Gulf Military Analysis. â€Å"Even after New Start [Treaty signed with Russia two years ago], the US will still have more than 15,000 deployed nuclear weapons and some 5,000 warheads.I firmly believe that we can ensure the security of the United States and our allies, maintain a strong deterrent against any threat and still pursue further reductions in our nuclear arsenal. â€Å"Barack Obama, the US president| Nuclear warheads around the world: Though the  exact number of nuclear weapons in each country's possession is a closely-guarded national secret, there are estimates available. Of the countries that are members of the non-proliferation treaty: * Russia is believed to have around 10,000 nuclear warheads * The US is estimated to have 8,500 France is believed to have 300 * China is estimated to have 240 * The UK is said to have 225 Of the non-member countries: * Israel is said to have 80 nucl ear warheads, though  it refuses to confirm or deny whether  it has any * Pakistan is thought to have between  90 and 110 * India is believed to have between 80 to 100 * North Korea is believed to have enough material to  produce up to 10 devices Asia-pacific | | South Korea set to host nuclear summit | | Security and safety on agenda, but diplomatic fallout from North Korea's rocket launch plan could dominate on sidelines. |South Korea is preparing to host the heads of more than 50 nations and international organisations at a nuclear security summit in Seoul. The meeting, starting on Monday,  comes a year after the meltdown at the Fukushima nuclear plant in Japan and participants will  discuss efforts to stop the spread of nuclear weapons and how to restore faith in civil nuclear energy. Participants include US President Barack Obama, who is due to visit the border zone between the two Koreas on Sunday, and Chinese President Hu Jintao. The controversial nuclear programm es of North Korea and Iran are not due to be formally discussed.But Obama is expected to hold talks on the sidelines with both Hu and South Korean President  Lee Myung-Bak over North Korea's plans to launch a satellite into space aboard a long-range rocket next month. Dozens of protesters from South Korea, Japan, Taiwan and Thailand gathered near the summit venue in downtown Seoul on Friday to denounce the gathering, saying  nuclear energy was threatening the safety of their lives. â€Å"The nuclear energy industry told us the industry is safe, but actually, there have been many accidents that happened,† Lee Heonseok, a protester, said. We think those accidents will be repeated in the future. Therefore, we insist the nuclear energy industry should disappear. † Richard Broinowski, a professor at the University of Sydney and former Australian ambassador to South Korea, told Al Jazeera that the summit was aimed at rebuilding confidence in the nuclear industry. â€Å"T he point of the safety nuclear conference should be about terrorism and the breakdown of systems, such as what happened in Fukushima, and what to do about them,† he said. But the summit could be overshadowed by diplomatic fallout from North Korea's announcement of its planned rocket launch.North Korea said earlier this month that it had halted its nuclear programme, weapons testing and long-range missile launches and was ready to return to international talks in return for US food aid. The US says April's rocket launch would violate that agreement, while Japan's defence minister said on Friday he had ordered the military to prepare to shoot down the rocket if it entered Japanese airspace. China, North Korea's closest regional, has also expressed concern that the launch could endanger regional stability. North Korea halts nuclear programme | Uranium enrichment, weapons testing and long-range missile launches to be stopped in return for US food aid. | North Korea has agreed to s top nuclear tests, uranium enrichment and long-range missile launches and to allow international inspectors to visit its Yongbyon nuclear complex in return for food aid from the United States. The announcement, made simultaneously by the US state department and North Korea's official news agency on Wednesday, paves the way for the possible resumption of six-party disarmament negotiations with the Communist state.It also marks a significant policy shift by North Korea's reclusive leadership  after the death of longtime ruler Kim Jong-il in December. â€Å"The DPRK, upon request by the US and with a view to maintaining positive atmosphere for the DPRK-US high-level talks, agreed to a moratorium on nuclear tests, long-range missile launches, and uranium enrichment activity at Yongbyon and allow the IAEA to monitor the moratorium on uranium enrichment while productive dialogues continue,†Ã‚  the  official KCNA news agency said. North Korea is known formally as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK).China, North Korea's only powerful ally, approved the announcement. Foreign ministry spokesman Hong Lei said in a statement posted on Thursday that China welcomed efforts by the two sides to improve relations and preserve peace and stability on the Korean peninsula. He reiterated China's willingness to participate in efforts to restart the six-party talks. ‘Profound concerns' The state department was cautious in its response but said Washington was ready to finalise details of a proposed food aid package of 240,000 metric tonnes of nutritional assistance, and that more aid could be agreed based on continued need. Secret talks that led to the agreement were held at the North Korean embassy in Beijing [AFP]| â€Å"The United States still has profound concerns regarding North Korean behaviour across a wide range of areas, but today's announcement reflects important, if limited, progress in addressing some of these,† a state department stat ement said. A South Korean foreign ministry spokesman said the development reflected â€Å"the close work Seoul and Washington have done to try to resolve the nuclear standoff,† while the International Atomic Energy Agency called it â€Å"an important step forward†.Al Jazeera's Kimberly Halkett, reporting from Washington DC, said that its linking â€Å"nutritional assistance† with political  developments was contrary to standard US foreign policy. â€Å"[This move] is certainly going to come under the microscope in terms of US policy. The US has used [food aid] successfully as leverage and there is going to be some talk about that,† she said. The announcement comes as the Obama administration steps up pressure on Iran over its atomic ambitions, which Western governments fear are aimed at producing nuclear weapons.It followed talks between the US and North Korea last week in Beijing, the first such meeting since veteran leader Kim Jong-il's son, Kim Jong -un, succeeded his father as leader. Christopher Hill, the former chief US negotiator in the six-party talks, said it was an important step that Kim's son, Kim Jong-un, had made such a high-profile  decision in the wake of his father's death. He said that the military, which is influenced by Chang Song-taek,  Ã‚  Kim Jong-il's powerful brother in law, had probably played a role in the agreement. I think the first order of business is to try to figure out the terms by which we provide the food aid,† Hill said. â€Å"We're going to have to make sure the North Koreans have  the aid and that we can monitor that the food aid goes to the right people. †Ã‚   Six-party talks North Korea agreed to curtail its nuclear activities under an aid-for-denuclearisation agreement reached in September 2005 by six-party talks bringing together North and South Korea, China, Japan, Russia and the US.Under the terms of that deal, the North agreed to abandon its nuclear programmes in exc hange for economic and diplomatic incentives to be provided by the other parties involved in the negotiations. But the embryonic deal was never fully implemented. Instead, the North held two nuclear bomb tests, in 2006 and 2009, and later disclosed a uranium enrichment programme, giving it a second path to obtaining fissile material for bombs, in addition to its long-standing programme of producing plutonium.The US, South Korea and their allies had been sceptical of North Korea's assertions that it stands ready to return to the six-party talks, and said they would insist on evidence of the country's willingness to denuclearise before any such talks could resume. World leaders: Nuclear terrorism a ‘grave threat' Comments (250) Cannot play media. You do not have the correct version of the flash player. Download the correct version President Obama: †There are still too many bad actors in search of these dangerous materials† Continue reading the main story Related Stor ies * Which countries have nuclear weapons? North Korea's missile programme * Timeline: Nuclear stand-off World leaders have called for closer co-operation to tackle the threat of nuclear terrorism at a summit on nuclear security in Seoul. A communique at the end of the summit reiterated a joint call to secure â€Å"vulnerable nuclear material†. South Korean President Lee Myung-bak said nuclear terrorism remained a â€Å"grave threat†, while US President Barack Obama said action was key. The meeting was dominated by North Korea's plan to launch a rocket. North Korea says the long-range rocket will carry a satellite when it goes up in April.The US says any launch would violate UN resolutions and constitute a missile test. Iran's nuclear programme was also on the minds of the summit participants, with Mr Obama pledging to meet the leaders of Russia and China on the sidelines to work towards a resolution. ‘Bad actors' At the meeting, world leaders discussed measures to fight the threat of nuclear terrorism, including the protection of nuclear materials and facilities, as well as the prevention of trafficking of nuclear materials. Continue reading the main story Analysis Jonathan Marcus BBC Diplomatic CorrespondentThe communique describes nuclear terrorism as one of the most challenging threats to international security. But the responsibility to maintain security over nuclear materials lies firmly with states rather than international bodies. And any effort to try to establish or impose common international standards inevitably raises concerns in some quarters that the world's major powers are seeking to intrude into the nuclear affairs of other countries. That's why this communique reaffirms that measures to strengthen nuclear security will not hamper the rights of states to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.The summit urges states to minimise the use of highly enriched uranium – one of the building blocks for a nuclear bomb . The summit highlights the threat from radioactive materials more generally. But again all the summit can do is urge states to take measures to secure these materials and work towards ratifying international conventions on nuclear security. It is hardly a resounding outcome from a gathering over-shadowed by the more immediate wrangling over North Korea's and Iran's nuclear activities.A joint communique reaffirmed their commitment to nuclear disarmament, non-proliferation and peaceful uses of nuclear energy. â€Å"Nuclear terrorism continues to be one of the most challenging threats to international security,† it said. â€Å"Defeating this threat requires strong national measures and international co-operation given its potential global, political, economic, social and psychological consequences. † But it omitted a reference made in a draft communique last Thursday on the need for â€Å"concrete steps† towards a world without nuclear weapons, AFP news agency rep orts.There are currently no binding international agreements on how to protect nuclear material stored peacefully inside its home country, says the BBC's Lucy Williamson in Seoul. An amendment seeking to do that is still unratified after seven years. Addressing the summit, Mr Obama warned there were still â€Å"too many bad actors† who were threatening to stockpile and use †dangerous† nuclear material. â€Å"It would not take much, just a handful or so of these materials, to kill hundreds of thousands of innocent people and that's not an exaggeration, that's the reality that we face,† he said. The security of the world depends on the actions that we take. † Mr Hu called for â€Å"an international environment conducive to boosting nuclear security† to be created and Mr Lee called for concrete action to tackle a threat that posed â€Å"a grave challenge† to peace. The summit was attended by almost 60 leaders from around the world. Rocket l aunch Meetings on Monday were overshadowed by North Korea's planned launch, scheduled to take place between 12 and 16 April. Pyongyang says it is intended to mark the 100th anniversary of the birth of North Korea's founding leader Kim Il-sung.Continue reading the main story Nuclear stockpiles in numbers * Russia: 10,000 * US: 8,500 * France: 300 * China: 240 * UK: 225 * Pakistan: 90-110 * India: 80-100 * Israel: 80 * North Korea: fewer than 10 Source: Federation of American Scientists * Nuclear weapons: Who has what? On Tuesday, a North Korean foreign ministry spokesman said that the launch would go ahead as planned and criticised Mr Obama's stance as †confrontational†. North Korea â€Å"will never give up the launch of a satellite for peaceful purposes†, the spokesman said in a statement in the official KCNA news agency.A KCNA report also described the †weather satellite† Pyongyang planned to launch as useful for †the study of weather forecast n eeded for agriculture and other economic fields†. Japanese Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda, speaking at the summit, called on Pyongyang to cancel the rocket launch, saying that it would violate UN Security Council resolutions. â€Å"As such, the international community strongly urges North Korea to exercise restraint and cancel the launch,† he said. The resolutions were passed after a similar launch in April 2009.Japan is particularly concerned as that rocket was launched over the country three years ago. The US and Chinese presidents met on Monday on the sidelines of the summit and agreed to co-ordinate their response to any â€Å"potential provocation† if Pyongyang went ahead with the launch. South Korea and the US say North Korea risks further sanctions and isolation if it does not cancel its plans. Seoul has also warned it will shoot down the rocket if it strays over South Korean territory. Which countries have nuclear weapons? There are an estimated 20,000 war heads in the world's combined stockpile of nuclear weapons.Of these, almost 5,000 are considered operational and about 2,000 belonging to the US and Russia are believed to be ready for use at short notice. Although the exact number of nuclear weapons in each country's possession is top secret, the Federation of American Scientists has made best estimates about the size and composition of national nuclear weapon stockpiles based on publicly available information. Their sources include the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists and the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Countries and their nuclear weapons |Country | Operational and strategic weapons* | Total arsenal** | Source: Federation of American Scientists, as of 6 March 2012| Russia| 2,430| 10,000| US| 1,950| 8,500| France| 290| 300| China| 0| 240| UK| 160| 225| Pakistan| 0| 90-110| India| 0| 80-100| Israel| 0| 80| North Korea| 0| Fewer than 10| *Strategic weapons are designed to target cities, missile locations and mi litary headquarters as part of a strategic plan **Total arsenal inventory includes non-strategic and non-deployed weapons as well as stockpiles North Korea's missile programmeContinue reading the main story Related Stories * North Korea rocket plan condemned * N Korea agrees to nuclear freeze * North Korea country profile North Korea is believed to have more than 1,000 missiles of varying capabilities, including long-range missiles which could one day strike the US. Pyongyang's programme has progressed over the last few decades from tactical artillery rockets in the 1960s and 70s to short-range and medium-range ballistic missiles in the 1980s and 90s. Systems capable of greater ranges are understood to be under research and development.According to the Council on Foreign Relations, an independent think-tank, some of North Korea's missiles also have the capability to carry nuclear warheads. However, the country is not yet thought to have developed such warheads. The country's missile programme has mainly been developed from the Scud. It first obtained tactical missiles from the Soviet Union as early as 1969, but its first Scuds reportedly came via Egypt in 1976. Egypt is believed to have supplied North Korea with missiles and designs in return for its support against Israel in the Yom Kippur War.By 1984, North Korea was building its own Scuds, the Hwasong-5 and Hwasong-6, as well as a medium-range missile, the Nodong. Its latest missile combines these technologies to give a long-range missile, the Taepodong. In 2006 and 2009 it test-fired a new missile called the Taepodong-2, which experts say could have a range of many thousands of miles. The missile failed to perform on both occasions. Short range missiles North Korea is believed to be in possession of a variety of short-range missiles, such as the KN-02, which can reach up to 120km and could target military installations in neighbouring South Korea.The Hwasong-5 and Hwasong-6, also known as Scud-B and C, hav e longer ranges of 300km and 500km respectively, according to the US Center for Nonproliferation Studies. These missiles can deliver conventional warheads, but may also have biological, chemical and nuclear capabilities. The Hwasong-5 and 6 have both been tested and deployed, defence experts believe, and would enable North Korea to strike any area in South Korea. Relations between the two Koreas are fraught and they remain, technically, in a state of war. The two countries never signed a peace treaty after an armistice ended their 1950-53 conflict.They are separated by one of the world's most heavily fortified borders and both have strong military capabilities. Nodong missile North Korea went on to embark on a programme in the late 1980s to build a new missile, known as the Nodong, with a range of 1,000km. Its likely target is Japan. But, according to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, little is actually known about the development, production, and deployment of the Nodong. The institute believes the weapon is not accurate enough for effective use against military targets, such as US military bases in Japan.A March 2006 report by the US Center for Non-proliferation Studies, concluded it had a â€Å"circular error probable† of 2km to 4km, meaning that half the missiles fired would fall outside a circle of that radius. Analysts therefore believe that should the Nodong be used as a weapon against Japan, it could lead to high levels of civilian casualties. Musudan missile The Musudan, also known as the Nodong-B or the Taepodong-X, is an intermediate-range ballistic missile. Its likely targets are Okinawa, Japan, and US bases in the Pacific.Range estimates differ dramatically. Israeli intelligence believes they have a 2,500km range while the US Missile Defense Agency estimates they have a range of 3,200km; other sources put the upper limit at 4,000km. These differences are due in large part to the fact that the missile has never been tested p ublicly, according to the Center for Nonproliferation Studies. Its payload is also unknown. Taepodong-1 and 2 missiles (including the Unha space launcher) The Taepodong-1 – known as Paektusan-1 in North Korea – was the country's first multi-stage missile.Based on satellite photographs, independent think-tank the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) believes the first stage is a Nodong missile and the second stage a Hwasong-6. Continue reading the main story Missile ranges * Short range: 1,000km or less * Medium range: 1,000-3,000km * Intermediate range: 3,000-5,500 km * Intercontinental: Greater than 5,500km Source: Federation of American Scientists It has an estimated range of 2,200km, but is understood to be even less accurate than the Nodong. The Taepodong-1 is understood to have test flown once in August 1998 as a space launcher.Instead of a normal ballistic missile payload, the missile carried a third stage that was meant to send a small satellite into low Eart h orbit. The FAS believes that although the first two stages worked, the third stage did not function correctly and no satellite entered orbit. The federation also says it is possible the Taepodong-1 was always meant as a space launcher and was never intended to be an intermediate range military missile. The Taepodong-2 – or Paektusan-2 – is also a two to three-stage ballistic missile, but is a significant advance on the Taepodong-1. Its range has been estimated at anything between 5,000-15,000km.The Center for Nonproliferation Studies puts the figure at a maximum estimated 6,000km. Taepodong-2 and its technology has been flight tested twice – in 2006 and 2009. It failed to perform on both occasions. In the early morning of 5 July 2006 (still 4 July in the US), it flew only 42 seconds before exploding – according to US sources. A three-stage space launcher version of the Taepodong-2 was then used in a failed attempt to send a satellite into space in April 2009. The launch was widely condemned by the US and South Korea, among others, as cover for a long-range missile test.North Korea refers to the space launcher version of the Taepodong-2 as Unha – Korean for galaxy – and describes it as a â€Å"carrier rocket†. Although space launches and missile launches follow slightly different trajectories and the rocket may be optimised for one purpose or the other, the basic technology used is the same. This includes the structure, engines, and fuel. If the Taepodong-2 were successfully launched and it reached its maximum estimated range, its increased power could put Australia and parts of the US, among other countries, within range. North Korea profile * Overview * Facts * Leaders * Media Timeline For decades North Korea has been one of the world's most secretive societies. It is one of the few countries still under nominally communist rule. North Korea's nuclear ambitions have exacerbated its rigidly maintained isolatio n from the rest of the world. The country emerged in 1948 amid the chaos following the end of World War II. Its history is dominated by its Great Leader, Kim Il-sung, who shaped political affairs for almost half a century. After the Korean War, Kim Il-sung introduced the personal philosophy of Juche, or self-reliance, which became a guiding light for North Korea's development.Kim Il-sung died in 1994, but the post of president has been assigned â€Å"eternally† to him. Continue reading the main story At a glance * Politics: A family dynasty heads a secretive, communist regime which tolerates no dissent * Economy: North Korea's command economy is dilapidated, hit by natural disasters, poor planning and a failure to modernise * International: The armistice of 1953 ended armed conflict on the Korean peninsular, but the two Koreas are technically still at war; tensions have been exacerbated in recent decades by North Korea's nuclear ambitions Country profiles compiled by BBC Moni toringDecades of this rigid state-controlled system have led to stagnation and a leadership dependent on the cult of personality. Aid agencies have estimated that up to two million people have died since the mid-1990s because of acute food shortages caused by natural disasters and economic mismanagement. The country relies on foreign aid to feed millions of its people. The totalitarian state also stands accused of systematic human rights abuses. Reports of torture, public executions, slave labour, and forced abortions and infanticides in prison camps have emerged.A US-based rights group has estimated that there are up to 200,000 political prisoners in North Korea. Pyongyang has accused successive South Korean governments of being US â€Å"puppets†, but South Korean President Kim Dae-jung's visit in 2000 signalled a thaw in relations. Seoul's â€Å"sunshine policy† towards the North aimed to encourage change through dialogue and aid. Nuclear tensions This tentative reac hing-out to the world was dealt a blow in 2002 by Pyongyang's decision to reactivate a nuclear reactor and to expel international inspectors.In October 2006 North Korea said it had successfully tested a nuclear weapon, spreading alarm throughout the region. Since then, intensive diplomatic efforts have aimed to rein in North Korea's nuclear ambitions. After years of on-and-off talks, a deal was thrashed out in February 2007 under which Pyongyang agreed to shut down its main nuclear reactor in return for aid and diplomatic concessions. But negotiations stalled as North Korea accused its negotiating partners – the US, South Korea, Japan, China and Russia – of failing to meet agreed obligations.North Korean soldiers keep watch over the Demilitarized Zone between North and South Tensions between North Korea and the rest of the world increased steadily again from late 2008 onwards, especially after the new South Korean president, Lee Myung-bak, ended his predecessor's †Å"sunshine policy† of rapprochement with the North. In April 2009 North Korea walked out of international talks aimed at ending its nuclear activities. The following month the country carried out its second underground nuclear test and announced that it no longer considered itself bound by the terms of the 1953 truce that ended the war between the two Koreas.Tensions reached a new high in spring 2010, when the South accused North Korea of sinking one of its warships, the Cheonan, and cut off all cross-border trade. Pyongyang denied the claims, and in turn severed all ties with Seoul. After the US imposed tough sanctions in August, the North began to make overtures again. Its then leader, Kim Jong-il, signalled a readiness to resume six-party nuclear talks during a visit to China, and indicated a willingness to accept Southern aid to cope with major flood damage.Kim Jong-il's successor in December 2011, his third son Kim Jong-un, continued the dynastic policy of sending out mix ed signals. He agreed to suspend long-range missile tests in order to receive US food aid in February 2012, only to challenge the US and the other frontline states almost immediately by announcing a forthcoming â€Å"rocket-launched satellite† for April, to mark Kim Il-Sung's birthday. In October 2012, Pyongyang responded to the unveiling of a new missile deal between Seoul and Washington by saying that it had missiles capable of hitting the US mainland.North Korea maintains one of the world's largest standing armies and militarism pervades everyday life. But standards of training, discipline and equipment in the force are reported to be low. Q&A: North Korea nuclear programme Negotiations over North Korea's nuclear programme have been a stop-start process North Korea's nuclear programme remains a source of deep concern for the international community, amid reports from South Korea suggesting Pyongyang is planning a third nuclear test. The BBC looks at North Korea's nuclear a mbitions and multi-national efforts to curtail them.Has North Korea got the bomb? Not yet. In 2006 and again in 2009 North Korea announced that it had conducted successful nuclear weapons tests. Satellite data from P'unggye-yok, in a remote area in the east of the country, appeared to tally with claims that the experiments had been conducted underground. The North is believed to possess enough weapons-grade plutonium for at least six bombs – but experts say it has not yet solved the problem of making a nuclear warhead small enough to fit into a missile. Opinions vary on how close the regime is to completing this process of â€Å"miniaturisation†.American expert Siegfried Hecker told South Korea's Yonhap news agency late last year that a third nuclear test could be sufficient for them to master the technology. Mr Hecker is one of the few people to have seen the North's capabilities first-hand. In 2010, he was shown a uranium-enrichment facility with 1,000 centrifuges an d said he was â€Å"stunned† by the sophistication of the plant. He said he saw no evidence that the fuel was for anything other than generating power, but added that it could be â€Å"readily converted to produce highly enriched uranium bomb fuel†. What does the regime say about its programme?Over the years Pyongyang has issued brash, contradictory and often inflammatory statements about its programme. After the 2009 nuclear test, an official communique stated that the test was â€Å"part of measures to enhance the Republic's self-defensive nuclear deterrent in all directions†. And in a rare unguarded moment after the 2006 test, deputy foreign minister Kang Sok-ju told reporters: â€Å"Why would we abandon nuclear weapons? Are you saying we conducted a nuclear test in order to abandon them? † Yet Pyongyang also regularly proclaims that it is committed to a nuclear-free Korean peninsula.It has frequently promised to give up part or all of its programme in return for aid. In February 2012, the regime promised to allow UN inspectors back into the country and to suspend uranium enrichment in return for US food aid. But shortly after that it launched a rocket in apparent defiance of UN resolutions banning missile tests, leaving that deal dead in the water. What has the international community done about the programme? Multiple rounds of negotiations have taken place between the North, the US, Russia, China, Japan and South Korea aimed at persuading Pyongyang to give up its nuclear ambitions.In September 2005, after more than two years of on-off talks, North Korea agreed a landmark deal to give up its nuclear ambitions in return for economic aid and political concessions. But implementing the deal proved extremely difficult and the talks stalled in April 2009 over the issue of whether North Korea was fully disclosing its nuclear assets. In July 2011, contact began again between the US and North Korea aimed at restarting the talks. Less t han six months later, North Korea's long-time leader Kim Jong-il died. He was succeeded by his son, the young and inexperienced Kim Jong-un.In February 2012 North Korea suddenly announced it had agreed to suspend nuclear activities. It also said it was placing a moratorium on nuclear and long-range missile tests. Its reward would be food aid from the US. But that deal has now been suspended following Pyongyang's 13 April 2012 rocket launch. What is the current state of the North's programme? The Yongbyon site is thought to be North Korea's main nuclear facility. The North has pledged several times to halt operations there and even destroyed the tower in 2008.But both the US and South Korea have said in the past that they believed the North had additional sites linked to a uranium-enrichment programme. And Mr Hecker's revelations in 2010 of a hitherto undeclared plant suggest that clandestine nuclear work is continuing. In December 2010, US State Department spokesman Philip Crowley s aid that the work being done at the site shown to Mr Hecker could not have been achieved if other related sites did not already exist. â€Å"We're very conscious of the fact that, in the recent revelations to American delegations, what they saw did not come out of thin air,† he said. It certainly reflects work being done at at least one other site. † Why does the issue of North Korea's nuclear capability matter so much? The two Koreas remain technically at war, since no peace treaty was signed after the 1950-53 Korean conflict. Tension has been high since an international panel blamed North Korea for sinking a South Korean navy warship in March 2010, with the loss of 46 lives. Ties were further strained in November 2010, when North Korea shelled a border island, killing four South Koreans.North Korea has a million-strong army and its border with the South is one of the most militarised in the world. Pyongyang's nuclear tests have sparked debate in Japan on allowing its military the option to launch a pre-emptive strike if it fears a missile attack. A fully nuclear North Korea could trigger an East Asian arms race, as Japan, South Korea and Taiwan, for instance, consider whether to go nuclear as well. North Korea claims nuclear plant progress Pyongyang says it has made rapid advances in building a light-water reactor and enriching uranium * Share 45 * * * inShare10 Email * Associated Press in Seoul * guardian. co. uk, Wednesday 30 November 2011 07. 38 GMT Pyongyang says it is making rapid progress on work to enrich uranium and build a light-water nuclear power plant Link to this video North Korea says it is making rapid progress on work to enrich uranium and build a light-water nuclear power plant, increasing worries that the country is developing another way to make atomic weapons. Pyongyang's foreign ministry said in a statement that the construction of an experimental light-water reactor and low enriched uranium were â€Å"progressing apaceâ₠¬ .It added that North Korea had a sovereign right to the peaceful use of nuclear energy and that â€Å"neither concession nor compromise should be allowed†. Concerns about North Korea's atomic capability took on renewed urgency in November 2010 when the country disclosed a uranium enrichment facility that could give it a second route to manufacture nuclear weapons, in addition to its existing plutonium-based programme. North Korea has been building a light-water reactor at its main Yongbyon nuclear complex since last year. Such a reactor is ostensibly for civilian energy purposes, but it would give the North a reason to enrich uranium.At low levels, uranium can be used in power reactors, but at higher levels it can be used in nuclear bombs. Earlier this month, North Korean state media said â€Å"the day is near at hand† when the reactor will come into operation. Washington has concerns about reported progress on the reactor construction, saying it would violate UN se curity council resolutions. The US secretary of state, Hillary Clinton, speaking to reporters on Wednesday at an international aid forum in the South Korean port city of Busan, did not address the North's statement on uranium.She called the US-South Korean alliance strong and mentioned the recent first anniversary of North Korea's artillery attack on a frontline South Korean island that killed four. â€Å"Let me reaffirm that the United States stands with our ally, and we look to North Korea to take concrete steps that promote peace and stability and denuclearisation,† Clinton said. Five countries, including the US, have been in on-again, off-again talks with North Korea to provide Pyongyang with aid in exchange for disarmament. North Korea pulled out of nuclear disarmament talks in early 2009 in protest at international condemnation of ts prohibited long-range rocket test. In recent months North Korea has repeatedly expressed its willingness to rejoin the talks, and tensions between the Koreas have eased. Diplomats from the Koreas and the UShave had separate nuclear talks, and cultural and religious visits by South Koreans to the North have resumed. South Korean and US officials, however, have demanded that Pyongyang halt its uranium-enrichment programme, freeze nuclear and missile tests and allow international inspectors back into the country before resuming negotiations.The North Korean statement on Wednesday accused the U S and its allies of â€Å"groundlessly† taking issue with the North's peaceful nuclear activities. They are â€Å"deliberately laying a stumbling block in the way of settling the nuclear issue on the Korean peninsula through dialogue and negotiations†, the statement said. Kim Yong-hyun, a professor at Dongguk University in Seoul, said the North's statement appeared aimed at applying pressure on Washington and the international community to rejoin the nuclear disarmament talks quickly. â€Å"North Korea is expected to step up its rhetoric,† he said.History of Nuclear proliferation The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that the cold war deterrent relationship between just the United States and Soviet Union was fragile. Having more nuclear nuclear-weapon states would reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, or from escalation in tensions, nuclear conflict. The NPT process was launched by Frank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958.It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the first State to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of the Cold War and of South African apartheid. In 1992 China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so. In 1995 the treaty was extended indefinitely. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998 the only remaining non-nuclear-weapons st ate which had not signed was Cuba, which joined NPT (and the Treaty of Tlatelolco NWFZ) in 2002. Several NPT signatories have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs.South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, allegedly with the assistance of Israel in the 1970s, and may have conducted a nuclear test in the Indian Ocean in 1979, but has since renounced its nuclear program and signed the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nuclear arsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty. Several former Soviet Republics, Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, destroyed or transferred to Russia the nuclear weapons they inherited from the Soviet Union.The former Soviet republics joined NPT by 1994. Successor states from the breakups of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia also joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to sign the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to sig n in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries in Compact of Free Association with the USA joined NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu. Major South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998.Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The tiny European states of Monaco and Andorra joined in 1995-6. Also signing in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993. See also: North Korea and weapons of mass destruction, 2006 North Korean nuclear test,  and Six-party talks North Korea ratified the treaty on December 12, 1985, but gave notice of withdrawal from the treaty on January 10, 2003 following U. S. allegations that it had started an illegal enriched uranium weapons program, and the U.S. subsequently stopping fuel oil shipments under the Agreed Framework[52] which had resolved plutonium weapons issues in 1994. [53] The withdrawal became effective April 10, 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty. [54] North Korea had once before announced withdrawal, on March 12, 1993, but suspended that notice before it came into effect. [55] On February 10, 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks hosted by China to find a diplomatic solution to the issue. We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK [Democratic People's Republic of Korea],† a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue. [56] Six-party talks resumed in July 2005. On September 19, 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors.The difficult issue of the supply of light water reactors to replace North Korea's indigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions. [57] On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT. [58] On October 2, 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test â€Å"in the future†, although it did not state when. 59] On Monday, October 9, 2006 at 01:35:28 (UTC) the United States Geological Survey detected a magnitude 4. 3 seismic event 70  km (43  mi) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test. [60] The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completed a successful underground test of a nuclear fission device. In 2007, reports from Washingt on suggested that the 2002 CIA reports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence. 61][62][63][64] On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations—which some critics worry could have been planted in order to justify the United States giving up trying to verify the dismantlement of Pyongyang's uranium program in the face of North Korean intransigence—there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok Ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that the A.Q. Khan proliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U. S. officials to the effect that evidenc e obtained in dismantling Libya’s WMD programs points toward North Korea as the source for Libya's uranium hexafluoride (UF6) — which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment. [65] The history of nuclear weapons chronicles the development of nuclear weapons.Nuclear weapons possess enormous destructive potential derived from nuclear fission or nuclear fusion reactions. Starting with scientific breakthroughs of the 1930s made by the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom during World War II in what was called the Manhattan Project to counter the assumed Nazi German atomic bomb project. In August 1945 two were dropped on Japan ending the Pacific War. An international team was dispatched to help work on the project.The Soviet Union started development shortly thereafter with their own atomic bomb project, and not long after that both countries developed even more powerful fusion weapons called â€Å"hydrogen bombs. † There have been (at least) four major false alarms, the most recent in 1995, that resulted in the activation of either the US's or Russia's nuclear attack early warning protocols. [1] North Korea Main article: Ryanggang explosion On September 9, 2004 it was reported by South Korean media that there had been a large explosion at the Chinese/North Korean border.This explosion left a crater visible by satellite and precipitated a large (2 mile diameter) mushroom cloud. The United States and South Korea quickly downplayed this, explaining it away as a forest fire that had nothing to do with the DPRK's nuclear weapons program. List of most powerful nuclear tests The following incomplete list contains nuclear tests conducted with a yield of over 10 Mt TNT. Date| Yield| Test mode| Country| Test Site| Remarks| October 30, 1961| 50 Mt| air-drop| Soviet Union| Novaya Zemlya| Tsar Bomba| December 24, 1962| 24. Mt| air-drop| Soviet Union| Novaya Zemlya| Tes t 219| August 5, 1961| 21. 1 Mt| air-drop| Soviet Union| Novaya Zemlya| | September 25, 1962| 19. 1 Mt| air-drop| Soviet Union| Novaya Zemlya| | February 28, 1954| 15 Mt| ground| USA| Bikini Atoll| Castle Bravo| May 5, 1954| 13. 5 Mt| sea surface| USA| Bikini Atoll| Castle Yankee| October 23, 1961| 12. 5 Mt| air-drop| Soviet Union| Novaya Zemlya| | March 26, 1954| 11 Mt| sea surface| USA| Bikini Atoll| Castle Romeo| November 1, 1952| 10. 4 Mt| ground| USA| Eniwetok| Ivy Mike| September 27, 1962| 10 Mt| air-drop| SovietUnion| Novaya Zemlya| | Background Korea has been a divided country since 1945, when it was liberated from the defeated Japan after World War II. The Korean War was fought from June 25, 1950, until an Armistice Agreement was signed on July 27, 1953. As part of the Armistice, both sides, including U. S. forces, conduct military patrols within the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). [citation needed] In September 1956 the U. S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Radford told the U. S. Department of State that the U. S. ilitary intention was to introduce atomic weapons into Korea. From January 1957 the U. S. National Security Council considered, on President Eisenhower's instruction, and then agreed this. However, paragraph 13(d) of the Korean Armistice Agreement mandated that both sides should not introduce new types of weapons into Korea, so preventing the introduction of nuclear weapons and missiles. The U. S. decided to unilaterally abrogate paragraph 13(d), breaking the Armistice Agreement, despite concerns by United Nations allies. 8][9] At a June 21, 1957, meeting of the Military Armistice Commission the U. S. informed the North Korean representatives that the U. N. Command no longer considered itself bound by paragraph 13(d) of the armistice. [10] In August 1957 NSC 5702/2[11] permitting the deployment of nuclear weapons in Korea was approved. [8] In January 1958 nuclear armed Honest John missiles and 280mm atomic cannons were deploy ed to South Korea,[12] a year later adding nuclear armed Matador cruise missiles with the range to reach China and the Soviet Union. 8][13] North Korea denounced the abrogation of paragraph 13(d) as an attempt to wreck the armistice agreement and turn Korea into a U. S. atomic warfare zone. At the U. N. General Assembly in November 1957 the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia condemned the decision of the United Nations Command to introduce nuclear weapons into Korea. [9] North Korea responded militarily by digging massive underground fortifications resistant to nuclear attack, and forward deployment of its conventional forces so that the use of nuclear weapons against it would endanger South Korean and U.S. forces as well. In 1963 North Korea asked the Soviet Union for help in developing nuclear weapons, but was refused. However, instead the Soviet Union agreed to help North Korea develop a peaceful nuclear energy program, including the training of nuclear scientists. China later, afte r its nuclear tests, similarly rejected North Korean requests for help with developing nuclear weapons. [8] Tensions between North and South have run high on numerous occasions since 1953. The deployment of the U. S.Army's Second Infantry Division on the Korean peninsula and the American military presence at the DMZ are publicly regarded by North Korea as an occupying army. In several areas, North Korean and American/South Korean forces operate in extreme proximity to the border, adding to tension. This tension has led to numerous clashes, including the Axe Murder Incident of 1976. In the early 1960s security concerns in the region and an apparent Soviet dismissal of these concerns hastened the DPRK's efforts to acquire the technology to produce nuclear weapons.In the wake of the student-led April 19 movement in 1960 that overthrew the South Korean president Rhee Syngman and the May 16, 1961, military coup d'etat that brought General Park Chung-hee to power in the south, North Korea sought a mutual defense treaty with the Soviet Union and China. Soviet leaders reportedly did not even consider such a pact necessary, despite the military posture of the anti-communist Park regime, as long as the Soviets improved relations with the United States. 14] Perhaps the two most important factors in North Korea's attempts to obtain nuclear weapons and become militarily self-reliant were the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 and the prospect of a US–Japan–ROK alliance following the 1965 establishment of diplomatic relations between the ROK and Japan. Kim Il-sung reportedly did not trust that the Soviets would live up to the conditions of the mutual defense pact and guarantee North Korea's security since they betrayed Castro by withdrawing nuclear missiles in an effort to improve relations with the United States.As a North Korean official explained to Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin in 1965, â€Å"the Korean leaders were distrustful of the CPSU and the Sovie t government, they could not count on that the Soviet government would keep the obligations related to the defense of Korea it assumed in the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, Kim Il-sung said, and therefore they were compelled to keep an army of 700,000 and a police force of 200,000. In explaining the cause of such mistrust, the official claimed that â€Å"the Soviet Union had betrayed Cuba at the time of the Caribbean crisis. â€Å"[15] However, as recently declassified Russian, Hungarian, and East German materials confirm, no communist governments were willing to share the technology with the North Koreans, out of fear that they would share the technology with China. [16] With the collapse of the Soviet Union, North Korean leaders recognized the need for a new security relationship with a major power since Pyongyang could not afford to maintain its military posture.North Korean leaders therefore sought to forge a new relationship with the United States, t he only power strong enough to step into the vacuum left by the collapse of the Soviet Union. From the early 1990s, throughout the first nuclear crisis, North Korea sought a non-aggression pact with the United States. The U. S. rejected North Korean calls for bilateral talks concerning a non-aggression pact, and stated that only six-party talks that also include the People's Republic of China, Russia, Japan, and South Korea are acceptable.The American stance was that North Korea had violated prior bilateral agreements, thus such forums lacked accountability. Conversely, North Korea refused to speak in the context of six-party talks, stating that it would only accept bilateral talks with the United States. This led to a diplomatic stalemate. On October 9, 2006, the North Korean government issued an announcement that it had successfully conducted a nuclear test for the first time. Both the United States Geological Survey and Japanese seismological authorities detected an earthquake wi th a preliminary estimated magnitude of 4. in North Korea, corroborating some aspects of the North Korean claims. [4] On November 19, 2006, North Korea's Minju Joson newspaper accused South Korea of building up arms in order to attack the country, claiming that â€Å"the South Korean military is openly clamoring that the development and introduction of new weapons are to target the North. † North Korea accused South Korea of conspiring with the United States to attack it, an accusation made frequently by the North and routinely denied by the United States. 17] The United Nations Security Council condemned the test in Resolution 1874. On May 25, 2009, North Korea conducted a second test of a nuclear weapon at the same location as the original test (not confirmed). The test weapon was of the same magnitude as the atomic bombs dropped on Japan in the 2nd World War, (confirmed South Korea and Russia). At the same time of the test North Korea tested two short range missiles (repor ted a South Korean News Network YTN – not officially confirmed). In July 2011, Abdul Qadeer Khan, the key figure in Pakistan's nuclear weapons evelopment, allegedly claimed that North Korea had gained access to Pakistan's nuclear technology in the late 1990s by paying bribes to Pakistan's senior military officials, a claim Pakistan's senior officials disputed. Khan stated that he had personally helped transfer $3 million in gratuities to senior Pakistan's military officers, though he neither provided any proofs to his claims. [18] Chronology of events Main article: Timeline of North Korea nuclear program [edit] Plutonium | This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2009)| MWe experimental reactor at Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center North Korea has had two operating reactors, both located at the Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. The older reactor is a Russian supplied IRT-2000 research reactor completed in 1967. [19] Uranium irradi ated in this reactor was used in North Korea's first plutonium separation experiments in 1975. [20] Nevertheless, the primary purpose of the reactor is not to produce plutonium and North Korea has had trouble acquiring enough fuel for constant operation. The U. S.Department of Energy estimated that this reactor could have been used to produce up to 1–2 kg of plutonium, thoug